1Department of Preventive Medicine, Graduate School of Public Health, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
2Graduate School of Public Health, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
Copyright © 2015 The Korean Society for Preventive Medicine
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/bync/3.0/) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Conflict of Interest
The authors have no conflicts of interest with the material presented in this paper.
n (%) (total 50 859) | Good health (%) | OR (95% CI) | |
---|---|---|---|
Sex | |||
Male | 24 655 (48.48) | 28.72 | 1.00 |
Female | 26 204 (51.52) | 33.5 | 1.25 (1.20, 1.30)*** |
Age (y) | |||
15-24 | 8179 (15.71) | 18.05 | 1.00 |
25-34 | 11 682 (22.44) | 21.4 | 1.24 (1.15, 1.33)*** |
35-44 | 10 823 (20.79) | 25.63 | 1.57 (1.46, 1.68)*** |
45-54 | 8943 (17.18) | 36.41 | 2.60 (2.42, 2.79)*** |
55-64 | 6444 (12.38) | 45.05 | 3.72 (3.46, 4.01)*** |
≥65 | 5997 (11.52) | 55.49 | 5.66 (5.25, 6.11)*** |
Marital status | |||
Cohabitating | 32 251 (63.41) | 31.84 | 1.00 |
Divorced/separated/widowed | 6215 (12.22) | 47.69 | 1.94 (1.85, 2.06)*** |
Single | 12 393 (24.37) | 21.25 | 0.58 (0.55, 0.61)*** |
Education1 | |||
Low | 17 358 (34.13) | 42 | 1.00 |
Middle | 22 293 (43.83) | 28.57 | 0.55 (0.53, 0.58)*** |
High | 1 1 208 (22.04) | 21.49 | 0.38 (0.36, 0.40)*** |
Income2 | |||
1 | 17 306 (34.03) | 43.09 | 1.00 |
2 | 15 481 (30.44) | 30.81 | 0.59 (0.56, 0.61)*** |
3 | 6296 (12.38) | 24.19 | 0.42 (0.39, 0.44)*** |
4 | 11 776 (23.15) | 19.68 | 0.32 (0.31,0.34)*** |
Voter | |||
Yes | 35 831 (68.82) | 31.65 | 1.09 (1.04, 1.14)*** |
No | 16 237 (31.18) | 29.81 | 1.00 |
Political activity | |||
1 (lowest) | 17 465 (34.34) | 36.71 | 1.00 |
2 (middle) | 21 799 (42.86) | 30.71 | 0.76 (0.73, 0.80)*** |
3 (high) | 11 595 (22.80) | 25.55 | 0.59 (0.56, 0.62)*** |
Social participation | |||
1 (lowest) | 19 734 (39305) | 37.14 | 1.00 |
2 (middle) | 14 111 (27.92) | 31.45 | 0.77 (0.74, 0.81)*** |
3 (high) | 16 692 (33.03) | 23.62 | 0.52 (0.50, 0.55)*** |
CI, confidence interval; OR, odds ratio.
1 Level of education was measured by using 1-9 scale. Here we reorganized the variable into 3 categories. Lowest group indicate education level lower than primary school, high for those attaining higher than completing secondary/university preparing level, and middle for those between.
2 Income level was measured by using self-rated income level in 1-10 scale. Here we merged the variable into 4 ordinal scale using original scale 1-3 into 1, 4-6 into 2, 7-8 into 3, and 9-10 into 4.
*** p<0.001.
Fair and poor SRH | Voter turnout | Political activity | Social participation | Gross national income per capita | Total health expenditure | Freedom index | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Voter turnout | 0.005 | ||||||
Political activity1 | -0.447*** | 0.320*** | |||||
Social participation1 | -0.573*** | 0.348*** | 0.426*** | ||||
Gross national income per capita | -0.394*** | 0.203*** | 0.796*** | 0.169*** | |||
Total health expenditure (%)2 | -0.216*** | 0.104*** | 0.686*** | 0.115*** | 0.701*** | ||
Freedom index3 | 0.438*** | -0.460*** | -0.661*** | -0.366*** | -0.625*** | -0.539*** | |
Public health expenditure (%)2 | -0.001 | 0.240*** | 0.420*** | 0.091*** | 0.403*** | 0.241*** | -0.420*** |
SRH, self-rated health.
1 For political activity and social participation, a higher score indicates a higher participation.
2 The total health expenditure (%) and public health expenditure (%) represents the percentage of spending on the gross national income.
3 For the freedom index, a higher score indicates a lower degree of freedom.
*** p<0.0001.
Variable | Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 | Model 5 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Constant | -0.800 (0.083)** | -1.062 (0.106)** | -0.506 (0.479) | -1.2457 (0.525)* | -1.8403 (0.714)* |
Level 1: individual | |||||
Age1 | 0.037 (0.001)** | 0.037 (0.001)** | 0.037 (0.001)** | 0.375 (0.001)** | |
Male | -0.207 (0.022)** | -0.207 (0.022)** | -0.207 (0.022)** | -0.208 (0.022)** | |
Marital status (divorced/widowed) | 0.138 (0.033)** | 0.139 (0.033)** | 0.139 (0.033)** | 0.132 (0.330)** | |
Single | 0.091 (0.030)* | 0.0917 (0.030)* | 0.0916 (0.030)* | 0.090 (0.031)* | |
Education2 | -0.292 (0.018)** | -0.291 (0.018)** | -0.290 (0.018)** | -0.284 (0.176)** | |
Income3 | -0.148 (0.005)** | -0.148 (0.005)** | -0.148 (0.005)** | -0.149 (0.005)** | |
Voter4 | -0.124 (0.027)** | -0.123 (0.027)** | -0.124 (0.027)** | -0.1 18 (0.028)** | |
Political activity | 0.014 (0.007)* | 0.014 (0.007)* | 0.014 (0.007)* | 0.011 (0.007) | |
Social participation | -0.026 (0.005)** | -0.026 (0.005)** | -0.026 (0.005)** | -0.025 (0.005)** | |
Level 1 variance | 0.549 (0.056)** | 0.601 (0.065)* | 0.514 (0.056)** | 0.467 (0.051)** | 0.435 (0.048)** |
Level 2: country | |||||
Voter turnout | 0.525 (0.604) | 0.661 (0.554) | 0.641 (0.566) | ||
Political activity | -0.247 (0.094)* | 0.078 (0.150) | -0.009 (0.151) | ||
Social participation | -0.116 (0.062)† | -0.164 (0.599)* | -0.117 (0.061)+ | ||
GNIpc (per USD 1000) | -0.021 (0.007)* | -0.015 (0.007)* | |||
Total health expenditure (%) | 0.007 (0.043) | 0.013 (0.043) | |||
Democracy index5 | 0.676 (0.348)* | ||||
Public health expenditure (%) | 0.006 (0.005) | ||||
Level 2 variance | 0.301 (0.065)** | 0.361 (0.078)** | 0.264 (0.058)** | 0.301 (0.066)** | 0.189 (0.042)** |
Log-likelihood test | -30 244 | -27 114 | -27 107 | -27 103 | -26 707 |
GNIpc, gross national income per capita; USD, United States dollar.
1 Age as a continuous variable.
2 Education was classified into three categories.
3 Income was classified into four categories .
4 Voters consisted of those who had participated in voting.
5 The higher the democracy index, the lower the freedom.
† p<0.10,
* p<0.05,
** p<0.001.
Variable | Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 | Model 5 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Constant | -0.953 (0.107)** | -1.450 (0.150)** | 0.508 (0.854) | 0.687 (0.889) | -2.166 (0.851)* |
Level 1: individual | |||||
Age1 | 0.035 (0.001)** | 0.035 (0.001)** | 0.035 (0.001)** | 0.035 (0.001)** | |
Male | -0.094 (0.037)* | -0.094 (0.037)* | -0.094 (0.037)* | -0.093 (0.037)* | |
Marital status (divorced/widowed) | 0.082 (0.052) | 0.084 (0.052) | 0.084 (0.052) | 0.083 (0.052) | |
Single | 0.113 (0.054)* | 0.114 (0.054)* | 0.114 (0.054)* | 0.116 (0.054)* | |
Education2 | -0.296 (0.029)** | -0.292 (0.029)** | -0.293 (0.029)** | -0.292 (0.029)** | |
Income3 | -0.131 (0.009)** | -0.130 (0.009)** | -0.130 (0.009)** | -0.130 (0.009)** | |
Voter4 | -0.261 (0.047)** | -0.262 (0.047)** | -0.262 (0.047)** | -0.261 (0.047)** | |
Political activity | 0.005 (0.012) | 0.005 (0.012) | 0.005 (0.012) | 0.004 (0.012) | |
Social participation | -0.422 (0.008)** | -0.042 (0.008)* | -0.042 (0.008)** | -0.042 (0.008)** | |
Level 1 variance | 0.446 (0.077)* | 0.464 (0.080)** | 0.298 (0.053)** | 0.298 (0.053)** | 0.178 (0.035)** |
Level 2: country | |||||
Voter turnout | -0.224 (1.421) | -0.550 (1.474) | 0.624 (0.972) | ||
Political activity | -0.318 (0.157)* | -0.221 (0.235) | -0.864 (0.195)** | ||
Social participation | -0.217 (0.109)* | -0.199 (0.108)† | 0.081 (0.078) | ||
GNIpc (per USD 1000) | -0.001 (0.009) | 0.010 (0.005)* | |||
Total health expenditure (%) | -0.031 (0.043) | 0.039 (0.028) | |||
Democracy index5 | 0.312 (0.109)* | ||||
Public health expenditure (%) | -0.029 (0.006)** | ||||
Level 2 variance | 0.199 (0.068)** | 0.2151 (0.074)** | 0.092 (0.033)** | 0.089 (0.032)** | 0.036 (0.013)** |
Log-likelihood test | -10 098 | -9045.4 | -9038.1 | -9037.8 | -9029.5 |
OECD, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development; GNIpc, gross national income per capita; USD, United States dollar.
1 Age as a continuous variable.
2 Education was classified into three categories.
3 Income was classified into four categories.
4 Voters consisted of those who had participated in voting.
5 The higher the democracy index, the lower the freedom.
† p<0.10,
* p<0.05,
** p<0.001.
n (%) (total 50 859) | Good health (%) | OR (95% CI) | |
---|---|---|---|
Sex | |||
Male | 24 655 (48.48) | 28.72 | 1.00 |
Female | 26 204 (51.52) | 33.5 | 1.25 (1.20, 1.30) |
Age (y) | |||
15-24 | 8179 (15.71) | 18.05 | 1.00 |
25-34 | 11 682 (22.44) | 21.4 | 1.24 (1.15, 1.33) |
35-44 | 10 823 (20.79) | 25.63 | 1.57 (1.46, 1.68) |
45-54 | 8943 (17.18) | 36.41 | 2.60 (2.42, 2.79) |
55-64 | 6444 (12.38) | 45.05 | 3.72 (3.46, 4.01) |
≥65 | 5997 (11.52) | 55.49 | 5.66 (5.25, 6.11) |
Marital status | |||
Cohabitating | 32 251 (63.41) | 31.84 | 1.00 |
Divorced/separated/widowed | 6215 (12.22) | 47.69 | 1.94 (1.85, 2.06) |
Single | 12 393 (24.37) | 21.25 | 0.58 (0.55, 0.61) |
Education |
|||
Low | 17 358 (34.13) | 42 | 1.00 |
Middle | 22 293 (43.83) | 28.57 | 0.55 (0.53, 0.58) |
High | 1 1 208 (22.04) | 21.49 | 0.38 (0.36, 0.40) |
Income |
|||
1 | 17 306 (34.03) | 43.09 | 1.00 |
2 | 15 481 (30.44) | 30.81 | 0.59 (0.56, 0.61) |
3 | 6296 (12.38) | 24.19 | 0.42 (0.39, 0.44) |
4 | 11 776 (23.15) | 19.68 | 0.32 (0.31,0.34) |
Voter | |||
Yes | 35 831 (68.82) | 31.65 | 1.09 (1.04, 1.14) |
No | 16 237 (31.18) | 29.81 | 1.00 |
Political activity | |||
1 (lowest) | 17 465 (34.34) | 36.71 | 1.00 |
2 (middle) | 21 799 (42.86) | 30.71 | 0.76 (0.73, 0.80) |
3 (high) | 11 595 (22.80) | 25.55 | 0.59 (0.56, 0.62) |
Social participation | |||
1 (lowest) | 19 734 (39305) | 37.14 | 1.00 |
2 (middle) | 14 111 (27.92) | 31.45 | 0.77 (0.74, 0.81) |
3 (high) | 16 692 (33.03) | 23.62 | 0.52 (0.50, 0.55) |
Fair and poor SRH | Voter turnout | Political activity | Social participation | Gross national income per capita | Total health expenditure | Freedom index | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Voter turnout | 0.005 | ||||||
Political activity |
-0.447 |
0.320 |
|||||
Social participation |
-0.573 |
0.348 |
0.426 |
||||
Gross national income per capita | -0.394 |
0.203 |
0.796 |
0.169 |
|||
Total health expenditure (%) |
-0.216 |
0.104 |
0.686 |
0.115 |
0.701 |
||
Freedom index |
0.438 |
-0.460 |
-0.661 |
-0.366 |
-0.625 |
-0.539 |
|
Public health expenditure (%) |
-0.001 | 0.240 |
0.420 |
0.091 |
0.403 |
0.241 |
-0.420 |
Variable | Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 | Model 5 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Constant | -0.800 (0.083) |
-1.062 (0.106) |
-0.506 (0.479) | -1.2457 (0.525) |
-1.8403 (0.714) |
Level 1: individual | |||||
Age |
0.037 (0.001) |
0.037 (0.001) |
0.037 (0.001) |
0.375 (0.001) |
|
Male | -0.207 (0.022) |
-0.207 (0.022) |
-0.207 (0.022) |
-0.208 (0.022) |
|
Marital status (divorced/widowed) | 0.138 (0.033) |
0.139 (0.033) |
0.139 (0.033) |
0.132 (0.330) |
|
Single | 0.091 (0.030) |
0.0917 (0.030) |
0.0916 (0.030) |
0.090 (0.031) |
|
Education |
-0.292 (0.018) |
-0.291 (0.018) |
-0.290 (0.018) |
-0.284 (0.176) |
|
Income |
-0.148 (0.005) |
-0.148 (0.005) |
-0.148 (0.005) |
-0.149 (0.005) |
|
Voter |
-0.124 (0.027) |
-0.123 (0.027) |
-0.124 (0.027) |
-0.1 18 (0.028) |
|
Political activity | 0.014 (0.007) |
0.014 (0.007) |
0.014 (0.007) |
0.011 (0.007) | |
Social participation | -0.026 (0.005) |
-0.026 (0.005) |
-0.026 (0.005) |
-0.025 (0.005) |
|
Level 1 variance | 0.549 (0.056) |
0.601 (0.065) |
0.514 (0.056) |
0.467 (0.051) |
0.435 (0.048) |
Level 2: country | |||||
Voter turnout | 0.525 (0.604) | 0.661 (0.554) | 0.641 (0.566) | ||
Political activity | -0.247 (0.094) |
0.078 (0.150) | -0.009 (0.151) | ||
Social participation | -0.116 (0.062) |
-0.164 (0.599) |
-0.117 (0.061)+ | ||
GNIpc (per USD 1000) | -0.021 (0.007) |
-0.015 (0.007) |
|||
Total health expenditure (%) | 0.007 (0.043) | 0.013 (0.043) | |||
Democracy index |
0.676 (0.348) |
||||
Public health expenditure (%) | 0.006 (0.005) | ||||
Level 2 variance | 0.301 (0.065) |
0.361 (0.078) |
0.264 (0.058) |
0.301 (0.066) |
0.189 (0.042) |
Log-likelihood test | -30 244 | -27 114 | -27 107 | -27 103 | -26 707 |
Variable | Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 | Model 5 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Constant | -0.953 (0.107) |
-1.450 (0.150) |
0.508 (0.854) | 0.687 (0.889) | -2.166 (0.851) |
Level 1: individual | |||||
Age |
0.035 (0.001) |
0.035 (0.001) |
0.035 (0.001) |
0.035 (0.001) |
|
Male | -0.094 (0.037) |
-0.094 (0.037) |
-0.094 (0.037) |
-0.093 (0.037) |
|
Marital status (divorced/widowed) | 0.082 (0.052) | 0.084 (0.052) | 0.084 (0.052) | 0.083 (0.052) | |
Single | 0.113 (0.054) |
0.114 (0.054) |
0.114 (0.054) |
0.116 (0.054) |
|
Education |
-0.296 (0.029) |
-0.292 (0.029) |
-0.293 (0.029) |
-0.292 (0.029) |
|
Income |
-0.131 (0.009) |
-0.130 (0.009) |
-0.130 (0.009) |
-0.130 (0.009) |
|
Voter |
-0.261 (0.047) |
-0.262 (0.047) |
-0.262 (0.047) |
-0.261 (0.047) |
|
Political activity | 0.005 (0.012) | 0.005 (0.012) | 0.005 (0.012) | 0.004 (0.012) | |
Social participation | -0.422 (0.008) |
-0.042 (0.008) |
-0.042 (0.008) |
-0.042 (0.008) |
|
Level 1 variance | 0.446 (0.077) |
0.464 (0.080) |
0.298 (0.053) |
0.298 (0.053) |
0.178 (0.035) |
Level 2: country | |||||
Voter turnout | -0.224 (1.421) | -0.550 (1.474) | 0.624 (0.972) | ||
Political activity | -0.318 (0.157) |
-0.221 (0.235) | -0.864 (0.195) |
||
Social participation | -0.217 (0.109) |
-0.199 (0.108) |
0.081 (0.078) | ||
GNIpc (per USD 1000) | -0.001 (0.009) | 0.010 (0.005) |
|||
Total health expenditure (%) | -0.031 (0.043) | 0.039 (0.028) | |||
Democracy index |
0.312 (0.109) |
||||
Public health expenditure (%) | -0.029 (0.006) |
||||
Level 2 variance | 0.199 (0.068) |
0.2151 (0.074) |
0.092 (0.033) |
0.089 (0.032) |
0.036 (0.013) |
Log-likelihood test | -10 098 | -9045.4 | -9038.1 | -9037.8 | -9029.5 |
CI, confidence interval; OR, odds ratio. Level of education was measured by using 1-9 scale. Here we reorganized the variable into 3 categories. Lowest group indicate education level lower than primary school, high for those attaining higher than completing secondary/university preparing level, and middle for those between. Income level was measured by using self-rated income level in 1-10 scale. Here we merged the variable into 4 ordinal scale using original scale 1-3 into 1, 4-6 into 2, 7-8 into 3, and 9-10 into 4.
SRH, self-rated health. For political activity and social participation, a higher score indicates a higher participation. The total health expenditure (%) and public health expenditure (%) represents the percentage of spending on the gross national income. For the freedom index, a higher score indicates a lower degree of freedom.
GNIpc, gross national income per capita; USD, United States dollar. Age as a continuous variable. Education was classified into three categories. Income was classified into four categories . Voters consisted of those who had participated in voting. The higher the democracy index, the lower the freedom.
OECD, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development; GNIpc, gross national income per capita; USD, United States dollar. Age as a continuous variable. Education was classified into three categories. Income was classified into four categories. Voters consisted of those who had participated in voting. The higher the democracy index, the lower the freedom.