1Department of Preventive Medicine, Graduate School of Public Health, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
2Incorporated Association FREEMED, Seoul, Korea
Copyright © 2025 The Korean Society for Preventive Medicine
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Conflict of Interest
The authors have no conflicts of interest associated with the material presented in this paper.
Funding
None.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization: Lim KT. Data curation: Choe JW. Formal analysis: Lim KT. Funding acquisition: None. Methodology: Choe JW, Lim KT. Project administration: Hwang SS. Visualization: Choe JW. Writing – original draft: Lim KT. Writing – review & editing: Lim KT, Choe JW, Hwang SS.
Characteristics | 2018 | 2020 | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
CVD | p-value1 | CVD | p-value1 | |||
No | Yes | No | Yes | |||
Total | 4589 (84.8) | 824 (15.2) | 4494 (83.0) | 919 (17.0) | ||
GOHAI score2 | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||
Poor | 2349 (51.2) | 554 (67.2) | 3161 (70.3) | 720 (78.3) | ||
Not poor | 2240 (48.8) | 270 (32.8) | 1333 (29.7) | 199 (21.6) | ||
Age (y) | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||
55–64 | 1578 (34.4) | 132 (16.0) | 1185 (26.4) | 109 (11.9) | ||
65–74 | 1590 (34.6) | 288 (34.9) | 1681 (37.4) | 281 (30.6) | ||
≥75 | 1421 (31.0) | 404 (49.0) | 1628 (36.2) | 529 (57.5) | ||
Sex | 0.268 | 0.097 | ||||
Male | 1710 (41.6) | 360 (43.7) | 1862 (41.4) | 408 (44.4) | ||
Female | 2679 (58.4) | 464 (56.3) | 2632 (58.6) | 511 (55.6) | ||
Smoking status | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||
Non-smoker | 3175 (69.2) | 550 (66.7) | 3093 (68.8) | 609 (66.3) | ||
Former smoker | 981 (21.4) | 218 (26.5) | 1049 (23.3) | 263 (28.6) | ||
Current smoker | 433 (9.4) | 56 (6.8) | 352 (7.8) | 47 (5.1) | ||
Single-person household | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||
No | 3909 (85.2) | 652 (79.1) | 3919 (87.2) | 748 (81.4) | ||
Yes | 680 (14.8) | 172 (20.9) | 575 (12.8) | 171 (18.6) | ||
Hypertension | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||
Yes | 1961 (42.7) | 573 (69.5) | 2050 (45.6) | 637 (69.3) | ||
No | 2628 (57.3) | 251 (30.5) | 2444 (54.4) | 282 (30.7) | ||
Diabetes | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||
Yes | 861 (18.8) | 268 (32.5) | 914 (20.3) | 317 (34.5) | ||
No | 3728 (81.2) | 556 (67.5) | 3580 (79.7) | 602 (65.5) | ||
Obesity | 0.001 | 0.002 | ||||
Severe obesity | 52 (1.1) | 20 (2.4) | 63 (1.4) | 21 (2.3) | ||
Obesity | 1069 (23.3) | 231 (28.0) | 1024 (22.8) | 248 (27.0) | ||
Overweight | 1382 (30.1) | 229 (27.8) | 1384 (30.8) | 264 (28.7) | ||
Average weight | 1954 (42.6) | 311 (37.7) | 1888 (42.0) | 348 (37.9) | ||
Underweight | 132 (2.9) | 33 (4.0) | 135 (3.0) | 38 (4.1) | ||
Alcohol consumption | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||
Yes | 1543 (33.6) | 156 (18.9) | 1386 (30.8) | 151 (16.4) | ||
No | 3046 (66.4) | 668 (81.1) | 3108 (69.2) | 768 (83.6) |
Variables | GEE model | ||
---|---|---|---|
OR (95% CI) | SE | p-value | |
GOHAI score2 | |||
Not poor | 1.00 (reference) | - | - |
Poor | 1.13 (1.07, 1.19) | 0.03 | <0.001 |
Age (y) | |||
55–64 | 1.00 (reference) | - | - |
65–74 | 1.19 (1.06, 1.33) | 0.07 | 0.002 |
≥75 | 1.52 (1.32, 1.75) | 0.11 | <0.001 |
Sex | |||
Male | 1.00 (reference) | - | - |
Female | 0.81 (0.67, 0.99) | 0.08 | 0.038 |
Smoking status | |||
Non-smoker | 1.00 (reference) | - | - |
Former smoker | 1.29 (1.06, 1.57) | 0.13 | 0.012 |
Current smoker | 1.05 (0.82, 1.34) | 0.13 | 0.679 |
Single-person household | |||
No | 1.00 (reference) | - | - |
Yes | 1.06 (0.95, 1.17) | 0.06 | 0.277 |
Hypertension | |||
No | 1.00 (reference) | - | - |
Yes | 1.80 (1.59, 2.04) | 0.11 | <0.001 |
Diabetes | |||
No | 1.00 (reference) | - | - |
Yes | 1.37 (1.20, 1.56) | 0.09 | <0.001 |
BMI | |||
Average weight | 1.00 (reference) | - | - |
Severe obesity | 1.18 (0.88, 1.59) | 0.18 | 0.264 |
Obesity | 1.01 (0.88, 1.14) | 0.07 | 0.934 |
Overweight | 0.99 (0.89, 1.10) | 0.05 | 0.844 |
Underweight | 0.91 (0.72, 1.17) | 0.11 | 0.467 |
Alcohol consumption | |||
No | 1.00 (reference) | - | - |
Yes | 0.56 (0.49, 0.63) | 0.03 | <0.001 |
GOHAI, Geriatric Oral Health Assessment Index; CVD, cardiovascular disease; GEE, generalized estimating equation; OR, odds ratio; CI, confidence interval; SE, standard error; BMI, body mass index.
1 All ORs are adjusted for covariates in the multivariate analysis.
2 GOHAI scores (0 to 60) were categorized as “poor” (<40) or “not poor” (≥40) to assess oral health-related quality of life in older adults.
Variables | Male | Female | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OR (95% CI) | SE | p-value | OR (95% CI) | SE | p-value | |
GOHAI score2 | ||||||
Not poor | 1.00 (reference) | - | - | 1.00 (reference) | - | - |
Poor | 1.12 (1.03, 1.22) | 0.05 | 0.008 | 1.36 (1.06, 1.22) | 0.04 | 0.001 |
Age (y) | ||||||
55–64 | 1.00 (reference) | - | - | 1.00 (reference) | - | - |
65–74 | 1.11 (0.94, 1.31) | 0.10 | 0.236 | 1.28 (1.10, 1.48) | 0.10 | 0.001 |
≥753 | 1.52 (1.23, 1.88) | 0.16 | <0.001 | 1.54 (1.28, 1.85) | 0.15 | <0.001 |
Smoking status | ||||||
Non-smoker | 1.00 (reference) | - | - | 1.00 (reference) | - | - |
Former smoker | 1.22 (0.98, 1.53) | 0.14 | 0.078 | 1.37 (0.91, 2.07) | 0.29 | 0.136 |
Current smoker | 0.95 (0.72, 1.25) | 0.13 | 0.705 | 1.83 (1.10, 3.04) | 0.48 | 0.021 |
Single-person household | ||||||
No | 1.00 (reference) | - | - | 1.00 (reference) | - | - |
Yes | 0.75 (0.59, 0.96) | 0.09 | 0.021 | 1.17 (1.04, 1.31) | 0.07 | 0.009 |
Hypertension | ||||||
No | 1.00 (reference) | - | - | 1.00 (reference) | - | - |
Yes | 1.71 (1.42, 2.05) | 0.16 | <0.001 | 1.87 (1.58, 2.23) | 0.16 | <0.001 |
Diabetes | ||||||
No | 1.00 (reference) | - | - | 1.00 (reference) | - | - |
Yes | 1.34 (1.10, 1.64) | 0.14 | 0.004 | 1.37 (1.15, 1.64) | 0.12 | <0.001 |
BMI | ||||||
Average weight | 1.00 (reference) | - | - | 1.00 (reference) | - | - |
Severe obesity | 0.99 (0.58, 1.68) | 0.27 | 0.968 | 1.32 (0.92, 1.89) | 0.24 | 0.128 |
Obesity | 0.94 (0.76, 1.16) | 0.10 | 0.541 | 1.07 (0.91, 1.26) | 0.09 | 0.424 |
Overweight | 0.97 (0.83, 1.13) | 0.07 | 0.695 | 1.00 (0.87, 1.15) | 0.07 | 0.949 |
Underweight | 0.83 (0.58, 1.20) | 0.16 | 0.323 | 0.98 (0.70, 1.35) | 0.16 | 0.882 |
Alcohol consumption | ||||||
No | 1.00 (reference) | - | - | 1.00 (reference) | - | - |
Yes | 0.51 (0.44, 0.59) | 0.04 | <0.001 | 0.71 (0.57, 0.88) | 0.08 | 0.002 |
GOHAI, Geriatric Oral Health Assessment Index; CVD, cardiovascular disease; OR, odds ratio; CI, confidence interval; SE, standard error; BMI, body mass index.
1 All ORs are adjusted for covariates in the multivariate analysis.
2 GOHAI scores (0 to 60) were categorized as “poor” (<40) or “not poor” (≥40) to assess oral health-related quality of life in older adults.
3 Variable was excluded due to perfect prediction or insufficient data for estimation.
Characteristics | 2018 | 2020 | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
CVD | p-value |
CVD | p-value | |||
No | Yes | No | Yes | |||
Total | 4589 (84.8) | 824 (15.2) | 4494 (83.0) | 919 (17.0) | ||
GOHAI score |
<0.001 | <0.001 | ||||
Poor | 2349 (51.2) | 554 (67.2) | 3161 (70.3) | 720 (78.3) | ||
Not poor | 2240 (48.8) | 270 (32.8) | 1333 (29.7) | 199 (21.6) | ||
Age (y) | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||
55–64 | 1578 (34.4) | 132 (16.0) | 1185 (26.4) | 109 (11.9) | ||
65–74 | 1590 (34.6) | 288 (34.9) | 1681 (37.4) | 281 (30.6) | ||
≥75 | 1421 (31.0) | 404 (49.0) | 1628 (36.2) | 529 (57.5) | ||
Sex | 0.268 | 0.097 | ||||
Male | 1710 (41.6) | 360 (43.7) | 1862 (41.4) | 408 (44.4) | ||
Female | 2679 (58.4) | 464 (56.3) | 2632 (58.6) | 511 (55.6) | ||
Smoking status | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||
Non-smoker | 3175 (69.2) | 550 (66.7) | 3093 (68.8) | 609 (66.3) | ||
Former smoker | 981 (21.4) | 218 (26.5) | 1049 (23.3) | 263 (28.6) | ||
Current smoker | 433 (9.4) | 56 (6.8) | 352 (7.8) | 47 (5.1) | ||
Single-person household | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||
No | 3909 (85.2) | 652 (79.1) | 3919 (87.2) | 748 (81.4) | ||
Yes | 680 (14.8) | 172 (20.9) | 575 (12.8) | 171 (18.6) | ||
Hypertension | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||
Yes | 1961 (42.7) | 573 (69.5) | 2050 (45.6) | 637 (69.3) | ||
No | 2628 (57.3) | 251 (30.5) | 2444 (54.4) | 282 (30.7) | ||
Diabetes | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||
Yes | 861 (18.8) | 268 (32.5) | 914 (20.3) | 317 (34.5) | ||
No | 3728 (81.2) | 556 (67.5) | 3580 (79.7) | 602 (65.5) | ||
Obesity | 0.001 | 0.002 | ||||
Severe obesity | 52 (1.1) | 20 (2.4) | 63 (1.4) | 21 (2.3) | ||
Obesity | 1069 (23.3) | 231 (28.0) | 1024 (22.8) | 248 (27.0) | ||
Overweight | 1382 (30.1) | 229 (27.8) | 1384 (30.8) | 264 (28.7) | ||
Average weight | 1954 (42.6) | 311 (37.7) | 1888 (42.0) | 348 (37.9) | ||
Underweight | 132 (2.9) | 33 (4.0) | 135 (3.0) | 38 (4.1) | ||
Alcohol consumption | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||
Yes | 1543 (33.6) | 156 (18.9) | 1386 (30.8) | 151 (16.4) | ||
No | 3046 (66.4) | 668 (81.1) | 3108 (69.2) | 768 (83.6) |
Variables | GEE model | ||
---|---|---|---|
OR (95% CI) | SE | p-value | |
GOHAI score | |||
Not poor | 1.00 (reference) | - | - |
Poor | 1.13 (1.07, 1.19) | 0.03 | <0.001 |
Age (y) | |||
55–64 | 1.00 (reference) | - | - |
65–74 | 1.19 (1.06, 1.33) | 0.07 | 0.002 |
≥75 | 1.52 (1.32, 1.75) | 0.11 | <0.001 |
Sex | |||
Male | 1.00 (reference) | - | - |
Female | 0.81 (0.67, 0.99) | 0.08 | 0.038 |
Smoking status | |||
Non-smoker | 1.00 (reference) | - | - |
Former smoker | 1.29 (1.06, 1.57) | 0.13 | 0.012 |
Current smoker | 1.05 (0.82, 1.34) | 0.13 | 0.679 |
Single-person household | |||
No | 1.00 (reference) | - | - |
Yes | 1.06 (0.95, 1.17) | 0.06 | 0.277 |
Hypertension | |||
No | 1.00 (reference) | - | - |
Yes | 1.80 (1.59, 2.04) | 0.11 | <0.001 |
Diabetes | |||
No | 1.00 (reference) | - | - |
Yes | 1.37 (1.20, 1.56) | 0.09 | <0.001 |
BMI | |||
Average weight | 1.00 (reference) | - | - |
Severe obesity | 1.18 (0.88, 1.59) | 0.18 | 0.264 |
Obesity | 1.01 (0.88, 1.14) | 0.07 | 0.934 |
Overweight | 0.99 (0.89, 1.10) | 0.05 | 0.844 |
Underweight | 0.91 (0.72, 1.17) | 0.11 | 0.467 |
Alcohol consumption | |||
No | 1.00 (reference) | - | - |
Yes | 0.56 (0.49, 0.63) | 0.03 | <0.001 |
Variables | Male | Female | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OR (95% CI) | SE | p-value | OR (95% CI) | SE | p-value | |
GOHAI score | ||||||
Not poor | 1.00 (reference) | - | - | 1.00 (reference) | - | - |
Poor | 1.12 (1.03, 1.22) | 0.05 | 0.008 | 1.36 (1.06, 1.22) | 0.04 | 0.001 |
Age (y) | ||||||
55–64 | 1.00 (reference) | - | - | 1.00 (reference) | - | - |
65–74 | 1.11 (0.94, 1.31) | 0.10 | 0.236 | 1.28 (1.10, 1.48) | 0.10 | 0.001 |
≥75 |
1.52 (1.23, 1.88) | 0.16 | <0.001 | 1.54 (1.28, 1.85) | 0.15 | <0.001 |
Smoking status | ||||||
Non-smoker | 1.00 (reference) | - | - | 1.00 (reference) | - | - |
Former smoker | 1.22 (0.98, 1.53) | 0.14 | 0.078 | 1.37 (0.91, 2.07) | 0.29 | 0.136 |
Current smoker | 0.95 (0.72, 1.25) | 0.13 | 0.705 | 1.83 (1.10, 3.04) | 0.48 | 0.021 |
Single-person household | ||||||
No | 1.00 (reference) | - | - | 1.00 (reference) | - | - |
Yes | 0.75 (0.59, 0.96) | 0.09 | 0.021 | 1.17 (1.04, 1.31) | 0.07 | 0.009 |
Hypertension | ||||||
No | 1.00 (reference) | - | - | 1.00 (reference) | - | - |
Yes | 1.71 (1.42, 2.05) | 0.16 | <0.001 | 1.87 (1.58, 2.23) | 0.16 | <0.001 |
Diabetes | ||||||
No | 1.00 (reference) | - | - | 1.00 (reference) | - | - |
Yes | 1.34 (1.10, 1.64) | 0.14 | 0.004 | 1.37 (1.15, 1.64) | 0.12 | <0.001 |
BMI | ||||||
Average weight | 1.00 (reference) | - | - | 1.00 (reference) | - | - |
Severe obesity | 0.99 (0.58, 1.68) | 0.27 | 0.968 | 1.32 (0.92, 1.89) | 0.24 | 0.128 |
Obesity | 0.94 (0.76, 1.16) | 0.10 | 0.541 | 1.07 (0.91, 1.26) | 0.09 | 0.424 |
Overweight | 0.97 (0.83, 1.13) | 0.07 | 0.695 | 1.00 (0.87, 1.15) | 0.07 | 0.949 |
Underweight | 0.83 (0.58, 1.20) | 0.16 | 0.323 | 0.98 (0.70, 1.35) | 0.16 | 0.882 |
Alcohol consumption | ||||||
No | 1.00 (reference) | - | - | 1.00 (reference) | - | - |
Yes | 0.51 (0.44, 0.59) | 0.04 | <0.001 | 0.71 (0.57, 0.88) | 0.08 | 0.002 |
Values are presented as number (%). CVD, cardiovascular disease; GOHAI, Geriatric Oral Health Assessment Index. Using the chi-square test. GOHAI scores (0 to 60) were categorized as “poor” (<40) or “not poor” (≥40) to assess oral health-related quality of life in older adults.
GOHAI, Geriatric Oral Health Assessment Index; CVD, cardiovascular disease; GEE, generalized estimating equation; OR, odds ratio; CI, confidence interval; SE, standard error; BMI, body mass index. All ORs are adjusted for covariates in the multivariate analysis. GOHAI scores (0 to 60) were categorized as “poor” (<40) or “not poor” (≥40) to assess oral health-related quality of life in older adults.
GOHAI, Geriatric Oral Health Assessment Index; CVD, cardiovascular disease; OR, odds ratio; CI, confidence interval; SE, standard error; BMI, body mass index. All ORs are adjusted for covariates in the multivariate analysis. GOHAI scores (0 to 60) were categorized as “poor” (<40) or “not poor” (≥40) to assess oral health-related quality of life in older adults. Variable was excluded due to perfect prediction or insufficient data for estimation.