1Division of Occupational Medicine, Department of Outpatient Service, Phramongkutklao Hospital, Bangkok, Thailand
2Department of Preventive and Social Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
Copyright © 2023 The Korean Society for Preventive Medicine
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors have no conflicts of interest associated with the material presented in this paper.
FUNDING
None.
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
Conceptualization: Jiamjarasrangsi W. Data curation: Laorattapong A. Formal analysis: Laorattapong A, Poobunjirdkul S, Rattananupong T. Funding acquisition: None. Methodology: Jiamjarasrangsi W, aorattapong A, Rattananupong T. Project administration: Laorattapong A. Visualization: Laorattapong A. Writing – original draft: Laorattapong A, Jiamjarasrangsi W. Writing – review & editing: Laorattapong A, Poobunjirdkul S, Rattananupong T, Jiamjarasrangsi W.
Characteristics | PM2.5-baseline (μg/m3)1 | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
|
||||
Quartile 1 (14.64–19.17) | Quartile 2 (19.18–21.64) | Quartile 3 (21.65–24.37) | Quartile 4 (24.38–25.16) | |
Age (y) | ||||
<45 | 2642 (49.5) | 2531 (45.9)2 | 2912 (45.3)2 | 1652 (40.9)2,3,4 |
≥45 | 2691 (50.5) | 2989 (54.1) | 3517 (54.7) | 2391 (59.1) |
|
||||
Sex | ||||
Male | 5032 (94.4) | 4911 (89.0)2 | 4984 (77.5)2,3 | 3067 (75.9)2,3 |
Female | 301 (5.6) | 609 (11.0) | 1445 (22.5) | 976 (24.1) |
|
||||
BMI (kg/m2) | ||||
Underweight | 77 (1.4) | 92 (1.7) | 115 (1.8)2 | 94 (2.3) |
Normal | 3034 (56.9) | 3261 (59.1) | 3781 (58.8) | 2300 (56.9) |
Overweight | 1882 (35.3) | 1812 (32.8) | 2177 (33.9) | 1367 (33.8) |
Obesity | 340 (6.4) | 355 (6.4) | 356 (5.5) | 282 (7.0) |
|
||||
Smoking status | ||||
Never | 2788 (52.3) | 3338 (60.5)2 | 3564 (55.4)2 | 2574 (63.7)2,3,4 |
Ex-Smoker | 873 (16.4) | 873 (15.8) | 1305 (20.3) | 648 (16.0) |
Non-regular smoker | 566 (10.6) | 561 (10.2) | 785 (12.2) | 399 (9.9) |
Regular smoker | 1106 (20.7) | 748 (13.5) | 775 (12.1) | 422 (10.4) |
|
||||
Alcohol consumption | ||||
Never | 1234 (23.1) | 1768 (32.0)2 | 1774 (27.6)2,3 | 1337 (33.1)2,4 |
Ex-drinker | 851 (16.0) | 514 (9.3) | 734 (11.4) | 377 (9.3) |
Non-regular drinker | 2438 (45.7) | 3059 (55.5) | 3710 (57.7) | 2208 (54.6) |
Regular drinker | 810 (15.2) | 179 (3.2) | 211 (3.3) | 121 (3.0) |
|
||||
Exercise level (min/wk) | ||||
No exercise | 349 (6.5) | 893 (16.2)2 | 559 (8.7)3 | 178 (4.4)2,3,4 |
≤150 | 1716 (32.2) | 1911 (34.6) | 1866 (29.0) | 1268 (31.4) |
>150 | 3268 (61.3) | 2716 (49.2) | 4004 (62.3) | 2597 (64.2) |
PM2.5-baseline (μg/m3)1 | Participants (person) | Person-years | New case | Incidence rate | 95% CI | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
LL | UL | |||||
Total | 21 325 | 81 736 | 1834 | 22.44 | 21.43 | 23.49 |
Quartile 1 (14.64–19.17) | 5333 | 20 534 | 449 | 21.87 | 19.93 | 23.99 |
Quartile 2 (19.18–21.64) | 5520 | 21 045 | 536 | 25.47 | 23.40 | 27.72 |
Quartile 3 (21.65–24.37) | 6429 | 24 492 | 565 | 23.07 | 21.24 | 25.05 |
Quartile 4 (24.38–25.16) | 4043 | 15 665 | 284 | 18.13 | 16.14 | 20.37 |
PM2.5 parameter (Min. Max, μg/m3) | Model I | Model II | Model III | Model IV |
---|---|---|---|---|
PM2.5-baseline2 | ||||
Quartile 1 (14.64, 19.17) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
Quartile 2 (19.18, 21.64) | 1.16 (0.86, 1.58) | 1.17 (0.87, 1.56) | 1.16 (0.79, 1.70) | 1.11 (0.74, 1.65) |
Quartile 3 (21.65, 24.37) | 1.24 (0.89, 1.70) | 1.24 (0.91, 1.69) | 1.37 (0.92, 2.03) | 1.51 (1.00, 2.28)* |
Quartile 4 (24.38, 25.16) | 0.85 (0.55, 1.19) | 0.85 (0.59, 1.23) | 2.01 (1.23, 3.27)** | 1.77 (1.07, 2.93)* |
|
||||
PM2.5-change3 | ||||
Quartile 1 (−5.86, −0.65) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
Quartile 2 (−0.64, −0.30) | 1.36 (1.11, 1.65)** | 1.30 (1.07, 1.58)** | 1.39 (1.12, 1.71)** | 1.41 (1.14, 1.75)** |
Quartile 3 (0.31, 1.02) | 1.97 (1.61, 2.42)*** | 1.92 (1.57, 2.36)*** | 1.44 (1.14, 1.81)** | 1.43 (1.13, 1.81)** |
Quartile 4 (1.03, 6.06) | 3.67 (2.99, 4.51)*** | 3.48 (2.83, 4.29)*** | 2.40 (1.84, 3.13)*** | 2.40 (1.84, 3.14)*** |
Values are presented as hazard ratio (95% confidence interval).
PM2.5, particulate matter with a diameter <2.5 microns; Min, minimum; Max, maximum.
1 Model I: only PM2.5-baseline or PM2.5-change was included as a predictor; Model II: Model I plus individual-level covariates (such as age, sex, BMI, baseline plasma glucose level, smoking status, alcohol consumption, and physical activity); Model III: Model II plus area-level covariates (such as relative humidity, wind speed, and rainfall); Model IV: both PM2.5-baseline and PM2.5-change were simultaneously included as the predictors, plus individual-level and area-level covariates.
2 The average of the annual PM2.5 exposure from 2015 to 2017 (baseline).
3 The difference between the baseline PM2.5 and the PM2.5 levels in lag years 1–3 before the outcome event or censorship.
* p<0.05,
** p<0.01,
*** p<0.001.
Characteristics | PM2.5-baseline (μg/m3) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
| ||||
Quartile 1 (14.64–19.17) | Quartile 2 (19.18–21.64) | Quartile 3 (21.65–24.37) | Quartile 4 (24.38–25.16) | |
Age (y) | ||||
<45 | 2642 (49.5) | 2531 (45.9) |
2912 (45.3) |
1652 (40.9) |
≥45 | 2691 (50.5) | 2989 (54.1) | 3517 (54.7) | 2391 (59.1) |
| ||||
Sex | ||||
Male | 5032 (94.4) | 4911 (89.0) |
4984 (77.5) |
3067 (75.9) |
Female | 301 (5.6) | 609 (11.0) | 1445 (22.5) | 976 (24.1) |
| ||||
BMI (kg/m2) | ||||
Underweight | 77 (1.4) | 92 (1.7) | 115 (1.8) |
94 (2.3) |
Normal | 3034 (56.9) | 3261 (59.1) | 3781 (58.8) | 2300 (56.9) |
Overweight | 1882 (35.3) | 1812 (32.8) | 2177 (33.9) | 1367 (33.8) |
Obesity | 340 (6.4) | 355 (6.4) | 356 (5.5) | 282 (7.0) |
| ||||
Smoking status | ||||
Never | 2788 (52.3) | 3338 (60.5) |
3564 (55.4) |
2574 (63.7) |
Ex-Smoker | 873 (16.4) | 873 (15.8) | 1305 (20.3) | 648 (16.0) |
Non-regular smoker | 566 (10.6) | 561 (10.2) | 785 (12.2) | 399 (9.9) |
Regular smoker | 1106 (20.7) | 748 (13.5) | 775 (12.1) | 422 (10.4) |
| ||||
Alcohol consumption | ||||
Never | 1234 (23.1) | 1768 (32.0) |
1774 (27.6) |
1337 (33.1) |
Ex-drinker | 851 (16.0) | 514 (9.3) | 734 (11.4) | 377 (9.3) |
Non-regular drinker | 2438 (45.7) | 3059 (55.5) | 3710 (57.7) | 2208 (54.6) |
Regular drinker | 810 (15.2) | 179 (3.2) | 211 (3.3) | 121 (3.0) |
| ||||
Exercise level (min/wk) | ||||
No exercise | 349 (6.5) | 893 (16.2) |
559 (8.7) |
178 (4.4) |
≤150 | 1716 (32.2) | 1911 (34.6) | 1866 (29.0) | 1268 (31.4) |
>150 | 3268 (61.3) | 2716 (49.2) | 4004 (62.3) | 2597 (64.2) |
PM2.5-baseline (μg/m3) |
Participants (person) | Person-years | New case | Incidence rate | 95% CI | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
LL | UL | |||||
Total | 21 325 | 81 736 | 1834 | 22.44 | 21.43 | 23.49 |
Quartile 1 (14.64–19.17) | 5333 | 20 534 | 449 | 21.87 | 19.93 | 23.99 |
Quartile 2 (19.18–21.64) | 5520 | 21 045 | 536 | 25.47 | 23.40 | 27.72 |
Quartile 3 (21.65–24.37) | 6429 | 24 492 | 565 | 23.07 | 21.24 | 25.05 |
Quartile 4 (24.38–25.16) | 4043 | 15 665 | 284 | 18.13 | 16.14 | 20.37 |
PM2.5 parameter (Min. Max, μg/m3) | Model I | Model II | Model III | Model IV |
---|---|---|---|---|
PM2.5-baseline | ||||
Quartile 1 (14.64, 19.17) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
Quartile 2 (19.18, 21.64) | 1.16 (0.86, 1.58) | 1.17 (0.87, 1.56) | 1.16 (0.79, 1.70) | 1.11 (0.74, 1.65) |
Quartile 3 (21.65, 24.37) | 1.24 (0.89, 1.70) | 1.24 (0.91, 1.69) | 1.37 (0.92, 2.03) | 1.51 (1.00, 2.28) |
Quartile 4 (24.38, 25.16) | 0.85 (0.55, 1.19) | 0.85 (0.59, 1.23) | 2.01 (1.23, 3.27) |
1.77 (1.07, 2.93) |
| ||||
PM2.5-change | ||||
Quartile 1 (−5.86, −0.65) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
Quartile 2 (−0.64, −0.30) | 1.36 (1.11, 1.65) |
1.30 (1.07, 1.58) |
1.39 (1.12, 1.71) |
1.41 (1.14, 1.75) |
Quartile 3 (0.31, 1.02) | 1.97 (1.61, 2.42) |
1.92 (1.57, 2.36) |
1.44 (1.14, 1.81) |
1.43 (1.13, 1.81) |
Quartile 4 (1.03, 6.06) | 3.67 (2.99, 4.51) |
3.48 (2.83, 4.29) |
2.40 (1.84, 3.13) |
2.40 (1.84, 3.14) |
PM2.5, particulate matter with a diameter <2.5 microns; BMI, body mass index. Average concentration of PM2.5 from 2015 to 2017. Significant difference from quartile 1 at Significant difference from quartile 2 at Significant difference from quartile 3 at
PM2.5, particulate matter with a diameter <2.5 microns; CI, confidence interval; LL, lower limit; UL, upper limit. Average concentration of PM2.5 from 2015 to 2017.
Values are presented as hazard ratio (95% confidence interval). PM2.5, particulate matter with a diameter <2.5 microns; Min, minimum; Max, maximum. Model I: only PM2.5-baseline or PM2.5-change was included as a predictor; Model II: Model I plus individual-level covariates (such as age, sex, BMI, baseline plasma glucose level, smoking status, alcohol consumption, and physical activity); Model III: Model II plus area-level covariates (such as relative humidity, wind speed, and rainfall); Model IV: both PM2.5-baseline and PM2.5-change were simultaneously included as the predictors, plus individual-level and area-level covariates. The average of the annual PM2.5 exposure from 2015 to 2017 (baseline). The difference between the baseline PM2.5 and the PM2.5 levels in lag years 1–3 before the outcome event or censorship.