Journal of Preventive Medicine and Public Health

Original Articles

Associations Between Urinary Metabolites of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Liver Enzyme Levels Among Korean Firefighters: Jaeyong Lee, Mun-Joo Bae, Mi-Ji Kim, Sung Soo Oh, Ki Soo Park, Chan Joo Lee, Sungha Park, Seung-Koo Lee, Sang-Baek Koh, Hyeon Chang Kim, Changsoo Kim, Jaelim Cho; J Prev Med Public Health. 2025;58(6):563-571. Published online July 12, 2025; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3961/jpmph.25.271

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Abstract Summary PDF: Objectives
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), byproducts of incomplete combustion of organic compounds, have been linked to various adverse health outcomes; however, evidence associating PAHs with liver damage remains inconsistent. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between PAH exposure and liver enzyme levels among firefighters, who have an increased risk of PAH exposure.
Methods
A total of 961 firefighters were included in the study. Urinary concentrations of 4 PAH metabolites (2-naphthol, 2-hydroxyfluorene, 1-hydroxyphenanthrene, and 1-hydroxypyrene) were measured and categorized into quartiles. Serum levels of liver enzymes, aspartate aminotransferase (AST), and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) were evaluated. Age, smoking status, alcohol consumption, body mass index (BMI), job position, and self-reported disease history were adjusted as covariates. Multivariable linear regression analyses were conducted to assess the association between PAH metabolites and serum AST and ALT levels. Logistic regression analyses evaluated associations between PAH metabolites and abnormal AST and ALT levels, defined as 40 IU/L or higher.
Results
Participants in the highest quartile of urinary 2-naphthol had an increased risk of abnormal ALT levels compared to those in the lowest quartile (odds ratio, 2.00; 95% confidence interval, 1.09 to 3.65). No significant associations were observed for the other PAH metabolites. The association between urinary 2-naphthol and abnormal ALT levels did not differ significantly by smoking status, alcohol consumption, or BMI.
Conclusions
Elevated urinary 2-naphthol levels were associated with abnormal liver enzyme levels among firefighters, suggesting that monitoring and managing PAH exposure may help protect liver health in this occupational group.; Summary

Korean summary
이 연구는 한국 소방관을 대상으로 요중 다환방향족탄화수소 대사체와 간 효소 수치의 연관성을 조사하였다. 연구 결과, 요중 2-naphthol 수치가 가장 높은 사분위수에 속하는 참가자들은 가장 낮은 사분위수와 비교하여 비정상 ALT 수치를 보일 위험이 유의하게 높았다. 이러한 결과는 다환방향족탄화수소 노출을 모니터링하고 관리하는 것이 소방관의 간 건강 보호에 중요한 역할을 할 수 있음을 시사한다.

Key Message
This study investigated the association between urinary polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) metabolites and serum liver enzyme levels among Korean firefighters. Results showed that participants in the highest quartile of urinary 2-naphthol had a significantly increased odds of having abnormal ALT levels compared to those in the lowest quartile. These findings suggest that monitoring and managing PAH exposure may play an important role in protecting the liver health of firefighters.

Institutional Delivery in the Philippines: Does a Minimum of 8 Antenatal Care Visits Matter?: Felly Philipus Senewe, Agung Dwi Laksono, Roy Glenn Albert Massie, Leny Latifah, Syarifah Nuraini, Rozana Ika Agustiya, Jane Kartika Propiana, Wahyu Pudji Nugraheni; J Prev Med Public Health. 2025;58(1):44-51. Published online October 22, 2024; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3961/jpmph.24.245

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Objectives
This cross-sectional study investigated the association between the utilization of 8 antenatal care (ANC) visits and delivery in a healthcare institution in the Philippines, using data from the 2022 National Demographic and Health Survey.
Methods
A sample of women who had given birth within the past 3 years was selected for analysis (n=4452). The association between ANC utilization and institutional delivery was assessed using logistic regression models, covariates by relevant socio-demographic factors, and childbirth history.
Results
We found that 97.2% of respondents who completed ANC opted for institutional delivery. A higher proportion of rural residents did not undergo institutional delivery than urban residents (12.9 vs. 6.9%). The group aged 20-24 years had the highest coverage (92.8%), and the group aged 40-44 years had the lowest. Higher education levels, employment, and greater wealth were associated with higher institutional delivery rates. Divorced or widowed mothers (85.1%) and grand multiparous mothers had lower rates than other groups. Multivariable logistic regression analysis showed a significant positive association between ANC utilization and institutional deliveries after adjusting for covariates (adjusted odds ratio, 2.486; 95% confidence interval, 2.485 to 2.487; p<0.001).
Conclusions
ANC visits were associated with deliveries in institutions in the Philippines. Policymakers should promote ANC by ensuring 8 World Health Organization-recommended visits, strengthening programs, conducting community outreach, addressing access barriers, and integrating maternal health services to increase institutional births and improve maternal and infant health.

Summary

Key Message
This study examines the determinants of institutional delivery in the Philippines, with a focus on compliance with the WHO-recommended eight antenatal care (ANC) visits. Analysis of data from the 2022 National Demographic and Health Survey reveals a strong positive correlation between completing the recommended ANC visits and choosing institutional delivery, alongside significant influences from maternal age, education, marital status, employment, socioeconomic status, and parity. Findings underscore the importance of expanding ANC access and targeted interventions, particularly in underserved areas, to increase institutional delivery rates and improve maternal and neonatal health outcomes.

Citations

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Correlates of facility-based childbirth: A health belief model approach using the National Demographic and Health Survey - Philippines
Denise B. Musni, Maria Paz N. Marquez
Philippine Journal of Health Research and Development.2025; 29(4): 34. CrossRef
Prevalence and risk factors of stillbirths among pregnant women from twelve high-volume birthing facilities of Karachi, Pakistan: a longitudinal cohort study
Danya Arif Siddiqi, Muhammad Zia Muneer, Sundus Iftikhar, Mubarak Taighoon Shah, Vijay Kumar Dharma, Fatima Miraj, Mariam Mehmood, Irshad Ali Sodhar, Farrukh Raza Malik, Subhash Chandir
BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth.2025;[Epub] CrossRef

The Impact of COVID-19 on Healthcare Services in Bangladesh: A Qualitative Study on Healthcare Providers’ Perspectives: Sharmin Parveen, Md. Shahriar Mahbub, Nasreen Nahar, K. A. M. Morshed, Nourin Rahman, Ezzat Tanzila Evana, Nazia Islam, Abu Said Md. Juel Miah; J Prev Med Public Health. 2024;57(4):356-369. Published online June 9, 2024; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3961/jpmph.24.081

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Abstract Summary PDF

Objectives
The objective of this study was to explore healthcare providers’ experiences in managing the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic and its impact on healthcare services.
Methods
A qualitative study was conducted with 34 healthcare professionals across 15 districts in Bangladesh. Among the participants, 24 were health managers or administrators stationed at the district or upazila (sub-district) level, and 10 were clinicians providing care to patients with COVID-19. The telephone interviews were conducted in Bangla, audio-recorded, transcribed, and then translated into English. Data were analyzed thematically.
Results
Most interviewees identified a range of issues within the health system. These included unpreparedness, challenges in segregating COVID-19 patients, maintaining isolation and home quarantine, a scarcity of intensive care unit beds, and ensuring continuity of service for non-COVID-19 patients. The limited availability of personal protective equipment, a shortage of human resources, and logistical challenges, such as obtaining COVID-19 tests, were frequently cited as barriers to managing the pandemic. Additionally, changes in the behavior of health service seekers, particularly increased aggression, were reported. The primary motivating factor for healthcare providers was the willingness to continue providing health services, rather than financial incentives.
Conclusions
The COVID-19 pandemic presented a unique set of challenges for health systems, while also providing valuable lessons in managing a public health crisis. To effectively address future health crises, it is crucial to resolve a myriad of issues within the health system, including the inequitable distribution of human resources and logistical challenges.

Summary

Key Message
This qualitative study explored healthcare providers' perspectives on the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on healthcare services. Issues within the health system, such as a lack of skilled human resources, insufficient critical care facilities, low coverage of COVID-19 tests, inadequate logistical support, poor health behaviors and practices among health service seekers posed barriers to managing the pandemic at different healthcare levels. Ensuring personal protection for health professionals in the face of a novel disease presented a significant challenge. Increasing resource allocation and developing the capacity of healthcare providers were identified as potential solutions.

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The Female Sex Workers' Experiences of Accessing Healthcare Services in Bangladesh: A Qualitative Investigation
Shaharior Rahman Razu, Kim Usher, Rikki Jones, Md. Shahidul Islam
Diversity & Inclusion Research.2025;[Epub] CrossRef
Impacts of Covid-19 on the Treatment of Kidney Dialysis Patients in Bangladesh: Lessons Learned and Future Directions

European Journal of Medical and Health Sciences.2025; : 533. CrossRef
Specific Trends in Blood Utilization During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Retrospective Analysis of a Hungarian Clinical Centre
Sándor Pál, Margit Solymár, Barbara Réger, Hussain Alizadeh, András Vereczkei, Tamás Kiss, Zsuzsanna Faust
Journal of Clinical Medicine.2025; 14(22): 7943. CrossRef

Association Between Cadmium Exposure and Liver Function in Adults in the United States: A Cross-sectional Study: Dongui Hong, Jin-Young Min, Kyoung-Bok Min; J Prev Med Public Health. 2021;54(6):471-480. Published online November 30, 2021; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3961/jpmph.21.435

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Abstract Summary PDF Supplementary Material

Objectives
Cadmium is widely used, leading to extensive environmental and occupational exposure. Unlike other organs, for which the harmful and carcinogenic effects of cadmium have been established, the hepatotoxicity of cadmium remains unclear. Some studies detected correlations between cadmium exposure and hepatotoxicity, but others concluded that they were not associated. Thus, we investigated the relationship between cadmium and liver damage in the general population.
Methods
In total, 11 838 adult participants from National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 1999-2015 were included. Urinary cadmium levels and the following liver function parameters were measured: alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), gamma glutamyl transferase (GGT), total bilirubin (TB), and alkaline phosphatase (ALP). Linear and logistic regression analyses were performed to assess the associations between urinary cadmium concentrations and each liver function parameter after adjusting for age, sex, race/ethnicity, annual family income, smoking status, alcohol consumption status, physical activity, and body mass index.
Results
The covariate-adjusted results of the linear regression analyses showed significant positive relationships between log-transformed urinary cadmium levels and each log-transformed liver function parameter, where beta±standard error of ALT, AST, GGT, TB, and ALP were 0.049±0.008 (p<0.001), 0.030±0.006 (p<0.001), 0.093±0.011 (p<0.001), 0.034±0.009 (p<0.001), and 0.040±0.005 (p<0.001), respectively. Logistic regression also revealed statistically significant results. The odds ratios (95% confidence intervals) of elevated ALT, AST, GGT, TB, and ALP per unit increase in log-transformed urinary cadmium concentration were 1.360 (1.210 to 1.528), 1.307 (1.149 to 1.486), 1.520 (1.357 to 1.704), 1.201 (1.003 to 1.438), and 1.568 (1.277 to 1.926), respectively.
Conclusions
Chronic exposure to cadmium showed positive associations with liver damage.

Summary

Korean summary
카드뮴은 사회 전반에서 널리 쓰이고 있어 직업적인 노출은 물론 환경적인 노출이 빈번히 일어나고 있다. 본 연구는 미국 국민건강영양조사 데이터를 이용하였으며 소변 내 카드뮴의 증가는 알라닌 아미노전이효소 (ALT), 아스파테이트 아미노전이효소 (AST), 감마 글루타밀전이효소 (GGT), 총 빌리루빈, 알칼리 인산분해효소 (ALP)의 상승과 관련이 있었다. 따라서 만성적인 카드뮴 노출은 간 손상과 연관이 있다고 할 수 있다.

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Association Between Low Muscle Mass and Non-alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease Diagnosed Using Ultrasonography, Magnetic Resonance Imaging Derived Proton Density Fat Fraction, and Comprehensive NAFLD Score in Korea: Hun Ju Lee, Jae Seung Chang, Jhii Hyun Ahn, Moon Young Kim, Kyu-Sang Park, Yeon-Soon Ahn, Sang Baek Koh; J Prev Med Public Health. 2021;54(6):412-421. Published online October 22, 2021; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3961/jpmph.21.387

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Abstract Summary PDF Supplementary Material

Objectives
Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is an increasingly prevalent metabolic disease. Muscle is known to influence NAFLD development. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the relationships among low muscle mass, NAFLD, and hepatic fibrosis using various definitions of low muscle mass and NAFLD diagnostic methods, including magnetic resonance imaging-based proton density fat fraction (MRI-PDFF).
Methods
This cross-sectional study included 320 participants (107 males, 213 females) from the Korean Genome and Epidemiology Study on Atherosclerosis Risk of Rural Areas in the Korean General Population cohort. Muscle mass was assessed using whole-body dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry and adjusted for the height squared, body weight, and body mass index (BMI). NAFLD was diagnosed using ultrasonography (US), MRI-PDFF, and the comprehensive NAFLD score (CNS). Hepatic fibrosis was assessed using magnetic resonance elastography. Multivariable logistic and linear regression analyses were performed to determine the aforementioned associations.
Results
According to US, 183 participants (57.2%) had NAFLD. Muscle mass adjusted for body weight was associated with NAFLD diagnosed using US (odds ratio [OR], 3.00; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.70 to 5.31), MRI-PDFF (OR, 2.00; 95% CI, 1.13 to 3.53), and CNS (OR, 3.39; 95% CI, 1.73 to 6.65) and hepatic fibrosis (males: β=-0.070, p<0.01; females: β=-0.037, p<0.04). Muscle mass adjusted for BMI was associated with NAFLD diagnosed by US (OR, 1.71; 95% CI, 1.02 to 2.86) and CNS (OR, 1.95; 95% CI, 1.04 to 3.65), whereas muscle mass adjusted for height was not associated with NAFLD.
Conclusions
Low muscle mass was associated with NAFLD and liver fibrosis; therefore, maintaining sufficient muscle mass is important to prevent NAFLD. A prospective study and additional consideration of muscle quality are needed to strengthen the findings regarding this association.

Summary

Korean summary
비알콜성 간질환은 대사질환 중 하나로 적은 근육양과의 연관성이 지속적으로 제시되었으나, 기존 연구들에서 일관되지 않은 결과를 보여주었다. KoGES-ARIRANG 코호트의 320명을 대상으로 초음파·MRI-PDFF·CNS 진단기준을 사용하여 단면연구를 수행한 결과, 세 진단기준에서 모두 적은 근육량과 비알콜성 간질환 사이에 연관성이 나타났다.

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COVID-19: Perspective

Unconventional Answers to Unprecedented Challenges: The Swedish Experience During the COVID-19 Outbreak: Giuseppe Valeriani, Iris Sarajlic Vukovic, Richard Mollica; J Prev Med Public Health. 2020;53(4):233-235. Published online July 22, 2020; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3961/jpmph.20.235

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Abstract PDF

Since its early stages, the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has posed immense challenges in meeting the public health and healthcare and social care needs of migrants. In line with other reports from United Kingdom and United States, data from Sweden’s health authority show that migrants have been disproportionately affected by COVID-19. Following the World Health Organization’s statements, as well as the European Public Health Association’s call for action, several centres in Sweden’s most populated areas have activated tools to implement national plans for community outreach through initiatives targeting migrants and ethnic minority groups. Unconventional means should be promoted to mitigate the impact of COVID-19 on migrants and the health of the public at large.

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Original Articles

Relationship Between Non-alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease and Decreased Bone Mineral Density: A Retrospective Cohort Study in Korea: Jisun Sung, Seungho Ryu, Yun-Mi Song, Hae-Kwan Cheong; J Prev Med Public Health. 2020;53(5):342-352. Published online July 17, 2020; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3961/jpmph.20.089

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Abstract PDF

Objectives
The aim of this retrospective cohort study was to investigate whether non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) was associated with incident bone mineral density (BMD) decrease.
Methods
This study included 4536 subjects with normal BMD at baseline. NAFLD was defined as the presence of fatty liver on abdominal ultrasonography without significant alcohol consumption or other causes. Decreased BMD was defined as a diagnosis of osteopenia, osteoporosis, or BMD below the expected range for the patient’s age based on dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. Cox proportional hazards models were used to estimate the hazard ratio of incident BMD decrease in subjects with or without NAFLD. Subgroup analyses were conducted according to the relevant factors.
Results
Across 13 354 person-years of total follow-up, decreased BMD was observed in 606 subjects, corresponding to an incidence of 45.4 cases per 1000 person-years (median follow-up duration, 2.1 years). In the model adjusted for age and sex, the hazard ratio was 0.65 (95% confidence interval, 0.51 to 0.82), and statistical significance disappeared after adjustment for body mass index (BMI) and cardiometabolic factors. In the subgroup analyses, NAFLD was associated with a lower risk of incident BMD decrease in females even after adjustment for confounders. The direction of the effect of NAFLD on the risk of BMD decrease changed depending on BMI category and body fat percentage, although the impact was statistically insignificant.
Conclusions
NAFLD had a significant protective effect on BMD in females. However, the effects may vary depending on BMI category or body fat percentage.

Summary

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Comparison of Computed Tomography-based Abdominal Adiposity Indexes as Predictors of Non-alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease Among Middle-aged Korean Men and Women: Jongmin Baek, Sun Jae Jung, Jee-Seon Shim, Yong Woo Jeon, Eunsun Seo, Hyeon Chang Kim; J Prev Med Public Health. 2020;53(4):256-265. Published online June 18, 2020; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3961/jpmph.20.140

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Abstract PDF Supplementary Material

Objectives
We compared the associations of 3 computed tomography (CT)-based abdominal adiposity indexes with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) among middle-aged Korean men and women.
Methods
The participants were 1366 men and 2480 women community-dwellers aged 30-64 years. Three abdominal adiposity indexes—visceral fat area (VFA), subcutaneous fat area (SFA), and visceral-to-subcutaneous fat ratio (VSR)—were calculated from abdominal CT scans. NAFLD was determined by calculating the Liver Fat Score from comorbidities and blood tests. An NAFLD prediction model that included waist circumference (WC) as a measure of abdominal adiposity was designated as the base model, to which VFA, SFA, and VSR were added in turn. The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC), integrated discrimination improvement (IDI), and net reclassification improvement (NRI) were calculated to quantify the additional predictive value of VFA, SFA, and VSR relative to WC.
Results
VFA and VSR were positively associated with NAFLD in both genders. SFA was not significantly associated with NAFLD in men, but it was negatively associated in women. When VFA, SFA, and VSR were added to the WC-based NAFLD prediction model, the AUC improved by 0.013 (p<0.001), 0.001 (p=0.434), and 0.009 (p=0.007) in men and by 0.044 (p<0.001), 0.017 (p<0.001), and 0.046 (p<0.001) in women, respectively. The IDI and NRI were increased the most by VFA in men and VSR in women.
Conclusions
Using CT-based abdominal adiposity indexes in addition to WC may improve the detection of NAFLD. The best predictive indicators were VFA in men and VSR in women.

Summary

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Effect of subcutaneous fat on long-term survival after surgery for stage I-III breast cancer as determined by computed tomography
Yi-Wen Mao, Hong-Dou Zeng, Ye Fang, Xin-Yao Wu, Ming-Hao Zhang, Cheng-Da Hu, Ya-Xin Zhao
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Usefulness of Body Fat and Visceral Fat Determined by Bioimpedanciometry versus Body Mass Index and Waist Circumference in Predicting Elevated Values of Different Risk Scales for Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease
María Gordito Soler, Ángel Arturo López-González, Daniela Vallejos, Emilio Martínez-Almoyna Rifá, María Teófila Vicente-Herrero, José Ignacio Ramírez-Manent
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Impact of Regional Cardiocerebrovascular Centers on Myocardial Infarction Patients in Korea: A Fixed-effects Model: Sang Guen Cho, Youngsoo Kim, Youngeun Choi, Wankyo Chung; J Prev Med Public Health. 2019;52(1):21-29. Published online November 28, 2018; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3961/jpmph.18.154

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Abstract Summary PDF Supplementary Material

Objectives
The Regional Cardiocerebrovascular Center (RCCVC) Project designated local teaching hospitals as RCCVCs, in order to improve patient outcomes of acute cardiocerebrovascular emergencies by founding a regional system that can adequately transfer and manage patients within 3 hours. We investigated the effects of RCCVC establishment on treatment volume and 30-day mortality.
Methods
We constructed a panel dataset by extracting all acute myocardial infarction cases that occurred from 2007 to 2016 from the Health Insurance Review and Assessment Service claims data, a national and representative source. We then used a panel fixed-effect model to estimate the impacts of RCCVC establishment on patient outcomes.
Results
We found that the number of cases of acute myocardial infarction that were treated increased chronologically, but when the time effect and other related covariates were controlled for, RCCVCs only significantly increased the number of treatment cases of female in large catchment areas. There was no statistically significant impact on 30-day mortality.
Conclusions
The establishment of RCCVCs increased the number of treatment cases of female, without increasing the mortality rate. Therefore, the RCCVCs might have prevented potential untreated deaths by increasing the preparedness and capacity of hospitals to treat acute myocardial infarction patients.

Summary

Korean summary
권역심뇌혈관질환센터 설립 사업은 지역별로 심뇌혈관센터를 지정/육성하여, 심뇌혈관질환 발생시 3시간 이내 진료체계를 구축함으로써 급성심근경색과 뇌졸중의 급성기 응급상황에 대한 대응을 강화하고자 시행되었다. 본 연구는 권역심뇌혈관질환센터 설립 정책으로 인해 시술 건수와 30일 내 사망 등과 같은 치료 성과가 지역 수준에서 향상되었는지 살펴보기 위해 건강보험 청구자료로 지역 수준 패널자료를 구축하여 권역심뇌혈관질환센터 설립의 효과를 추정하였다. 분석 결과, 시계열적 효과와 관련 변수를 통제하였을 때 권역심뇌혈관질환센터 설립 이후 설립 지역에서 여성의 치료 사례 수가 통계적으로 유의하게 증가하였고, 사망률은 유의미한 변화가 관찰되지 않았다. 따라서 권역심뇌혈관질환센터 설립은 대비성 향상과 치료 사례 수 증가를 통해 추가적인 치료를 받은 급성심근경색 환자의 잠재적인 원외 사망을 방지하는 효과가 있는 것으로 판단된다.

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Abstract PDF Supplementary Material

Objectives
We aimed to evaluate the effect of geographic units of analysis on measuring geographic variation in medical services utilization. For this purpose, we compared geographic variations in the rates of eight major procedures in administrative units (districts) and new areal units organized based on the actual health care use of the population in Korea.
Methods
To compare geographic variation in geographic units of analysis, we calculated the age–sex standardized rates of eight major procedures (coronary artery bypass graft surgery, percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty, surgery after hip fracture, knee-replacement surgery, caesarean section, hysterectomy, computed tomography scan, and magnetic resonance imaging scan) from the National Health Insurance database in Korea for the 2013 period. Using the coefficient of variation, the extremal quotient, and the systematic component of variation, we measured geographic variation for these eight procedures in districts and new areal units.
Results
Compared with districts, new areal units showed a reduction in geographic variation. Extremal quotients and inter-decile ratios for the eight procedures were lower in new areal units. While the coefficient of variation was lower for most procedures in new areal units, the pattern of change of the systematic component of variation between districts and new areal units differed among procedures.
Conclusions
Geographic variation in medical service utilization could vary according to the geographic unit of analysis. To determine how geographic characteristics such as population size and number of geographic units affect geographic variation, further studies are needed.

Summary

Citations

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Perspective

Implementation of Quaternary Prevention in the Korean Healthcare System: Lessons From the 2015 Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus Outbreak in the Republic of Korea: Jong-Myon Bae; J Prev Med Public Health. 2015;48(6):271-273. Published online November 24, 2015; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3961/jpmph.15.059

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Abstract PDF

Quaternary prevention should be implemented to minimize harm to patients because the ultimate goal of medicine is to prevent disease and promote health. Primary care physicians have a major responsibility in quaternary prevention, and the establishment of clinical epidemiology as a distinct field of study would create a role charged with minimizing patient harm arising from over-medicalization.

Summary

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Original Articles

Physical Activity- and Alcohol-dependent Association Between Air Pollution Exposure and Elevated Liver Enzyme Levels: An Elderly Panel Study: Kyoung-Nam Kim, Hyemi Lee, Jin Hee Kim, Kweon Jung, Youn-Hee Lim, Yun-Chul Hong; J Prev Med Public Health. 2015;48(3):151-169. Published online May 15, 2015; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3961/jpmph.15.014

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Abstract PDF Supplementary Material

Objectives
The deleterious effects of air pollution on various health outcomes have been demonstrated. However, few studies have examined the effects of air pollution on liver enzyme levels.
Methods
Blood samples were drawn up to three times between 2008 and 2010 from 545 elderly individuals who regularly visited a community welfare center in Seoul, Korea. Data regarding ambient air pollutants (particulate matter ≤2.5 μm [PM_2.5], nitrogen dioxide [NO₂], ozone [O₃], carbon monoxide, and sulfur dioxide) from monitoring stations were used to estimate air pollution exposure. The effects of the air pollutants on the concentrations of three liver enzymes (aspartate aminotransferase [AST], alanine aminotransferase [ALT], and γ-glutamyltranspeptidase [γ-GTP)]) were evaluated using generalized additive and linear mixed models.
Results
Interquartile range increases in the concentrations of the pollutants showed significant associations of PM_2.5 with AST (3.0% increase, p=0.0052), ALT (3.2% increase, p=0.0313), and γ-GTP (5.0% increase, p=0.0051) levels; NO₂ with AST (3.5% increase, p=0.0060) and ALT (3.8% increase, p=0.0179) levels; and O₃ with γ-GTP (5.3% increase, p=0.0324) levels. Significant modification of these effects by exercise and alcohol consumption was found (p for interaction <0.05). The effects of air pollutants were greater in non-exercisers and heavy drinkers.
Conclusions
Short-term exposure to air pollutants such as PM_2.5, NO₂, and O₃ is associated with increased liver enzyme levels in the elderly. These adverse effects can be reduced by exercising regularly and abstinence from alcohol.

Summary

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Has Income-related Inequity in Health Care Utilization and Expenditures Been Improved? Evidence From the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey of 2005 and 2010: Eunkyoung Kim, Soonman Kwon, Ke Xu; J Prev Med Public Health. 2013;46(5):237-248. Published online September 30, 2013; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3961/jpmph.2013.46.5.237

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Abstract PDF

Objectives

The purpose of this study is to examine and explain the extent of income-related inequity in health care utilization and expenditures to compare the extent in 2005 and 2010 in Korea.

Methods

We employed the concentration indices and the horizontal inequity index proposed by Wagstaff and van Doorslaer based on one- and two-part models. This study was conducted using data from the 2005 and 2010 Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. We examined health care utilization and expenditures for different types of health care providers, including health centers, physician clinics, hospitals, general hospitals, dental care, and licensed traditional medical practitioners.

Results

The results show the equitable distribution of overall health care utilization with pro-poor tendencies and modest pro-rich inequity in the amount of medical expenditures in 2010. For the decomposition analysis, non-need variables such as income, education, private insurance, and occupational status have contributed considerably to pro-rich inequality in health care over the period between 2005 and 2010.

Conclusions

We found that health care utilization in Korea in 2010 was fairly equitable, but the poor still have some barriers to accessing primary care and continuing to receive medical care.

Summary

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A Strategy Toward Reconstructing the Healthcare System of a Unified Korea: Yo Han Lee, Seok-Jun Yoon, Seok Hyang Kim, Hyun-Woung Shin, Jin Yong Lee, Beomsoo Kim, Young Ae Kim, Jangho Yoon, Young Seok Shin; J Prev Med Public Health. 2013;46(3):134-138. Published online May 31, 2013; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3961/jpmph.2013.46.3.134

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Abstract PDF

This road map aims to establish a stable and integrated healthcare system for the Korean Peninsula by improving health conditions and building a foundation for healthcare in North Korea through a series of effective healthcare programs. With a basic time frame extending from the present in stages towards unification, the roadmap is composed of four successive phases. The first and second phases, each expected to last five years, respectively, focus on disease treatment and nutritional treatment. These phases would thereby safeguard the health of the most vulnerable populations in North Korea, while fulfilling the basic health needs of other groups by modernizing existing medical facilities. Based on the gains of the first two phases, the third phase, for ten years, would prepare for unification of the Koreas by promoting the health of all the North Korean people and improving basic infrastructural elements such as health workforce capacity and medical institutions. The fourth phase, assuming that unification will take place, provides fundamental principles and directions for establishing an integrated healthcare system across the Korean Peninsula. We are hoping to increase the consistency of the program and overcome several existing concerns of the current program with this roadmap.

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Abstract PDF

Electronic cigarettes (e-cigarrettes) were recently introduced and advertised as a smoking cession device in South Korea. As the social norm to quit smoking has gained hold in the country, the number of e-cigarette users is growing rapidly. This phenomenon should be urgently considered, because of the lack of research that has been conducted to examine the safety of e-cigarettes and its efficacy as a smoking cessation aid.

This paper raises several public health concerns on e-cigarettes in South Korea. Uncertain regulations of the government on e-cigarettes are contributing to an increase of e-cigarette users and allowing the e-cigarette industry to circumvent existing regulations. The aggressive marketing activity of this industry is also a core factor that is responsible for the rapid increase of e-cigarette use, in particular among the youth. Following the enforcement of tobacco control, some cigarette smokers may be encouraged to purchase e-cigarettes in order to circumvent the regulations, even though the dual use of e-cigarette and cigarette may be more harmful.

Until there is clear evidence of the e-cigarette's safety, it is recommended that the industry's marketing and promotional activities be banned and closely monitored, and public campaigns be initiated to educate the public regarding e-cigarettes.

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English Abstracts

The Association of Cardiovascular Risk Factors with Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease in Health Checkup Examinees.: Jae Hee Yu, Kang Sook Lee, Seon Young Lee, A Rum Hong, Yong Sang Park; J Prev Med Public Health. 2008;41(6):407-412.; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3961/jpmph.2008.41.6.407

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Abstract PDF

OBJECTIVES
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the relationship of nonalcoholic fatty liver and cardiovascular risk factors. METHODS: This study was conducted to investigate the association of nonalcoholic fatty liver and cardiovascular risk factors for adult men (n=2976) and women (n=2442) who were over 19 years old, after excluding the HBsAg(+) or anti-HCV(+) patients and the men and women with increased alcohol intake (men: 40 g/week, women: 20 g/week). RESULTS: Compared with the normal liver subjects, the nonalcoholic fatty liver subjects showed a significantly increased frequency of abnormal systolic blood pressure (> or =120 mmHg), fasting blood sugar (> or =100 mg/dL), total cholesterol (> or =200 mg/dL), triglyceride (> or =150 mg/dL), high density lipoprotein cholesterol (<40 mg/dL), low density lipoprotein cholesterol (> or =130g m/dL) and abdominal obesity in men, and all these measures were significantly increased in the women except for abnormal HDL cholesterol. After adjusting for the body mass index, age, smoking, exercise and a nonalcoholic liver, the odds ratios of an abnormal waist hip ratio were 1.35(95% Confidence Interval=1.05-4.72) in the mild fatty liver, 1.61(1.19-2.18) in the moderate fatty liver, 2.77(1.57-4.92) in the severe fatty liver compared with a normal liver. The adjusted odds ratios for abnormal fasting blood sugar were 1.26(1.03-1.53) in the mild fatty liver, 1.62(1.27-2.06) in the moderate fatty lliver and 1.77(1.12-2.78) in the severe fatty liver. The adjusted odds ratios for abnormal triglyceride were 1.38(1.11-1.72) in the mild fatty liver, 1.73(0.33-2.24) in the moderate fatty liver and 1.91(1.17-3.10) in the severe fatty liver of men. Adjusted odds ratios for abnormal triglyceride were 1.50(1.04-2.15) in mild, 1.71(1.07-2.68) in moderate, 1.81(0.69-4.38) in severe fatty liver of women. CONCLUSIONS: The nonalcoholic fatty liver subjects had more cardiovascular risk factors compared with the normal liver subjects. Thus, prevention and treatment of the nonalcoholic fatty liver is necessary by lifestyle modifications such as restriction of alcohol intake, no smoking, exercise and adequate eating habits.

Summary

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Associations of Non Alcoholic Fatty Liver with the Metabolic Syndrome and Serum Carotenoids.: Sun kyun Park, Hyun Jung Lee, Duk Hee Lee, Sung Kook Lee, Byung Yeol Chun, Sung Ae Kim, Hye Sung Lee, Hyo Kyung Son, Sung Hi Kim; J Prev Med Public Health. 2008;41(1):39-44.; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3961/jpmph.2008.41.1.39

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OBJECTIVES
This study was conducted to investigate the associations of non alcoholic fatty liver with metabolic syndrome and the serum carotenoids. METHODS: This study was conducted in a general hospital in South Korea from November, 2004 to August, 2005. The study subjects were 350 sampled persons who were aged from 40 years and older (males: 180, females: 170). They were grouped into the normal, mild and severe groups according to fat accumulation in their livers, as determined by ultrasonography. We analyzed the association between non alcoholic fatty liver and metabolic syndrome by multiple logistic regression analysis and we analyzed the association between non alcoholic fatty liver and the serum carotenoids by a general linear model(ANCOVA). RESULTS: After adjustment for the effect of potential covariates, the prevalence of metabolic syndrome was associated with fat accumulation in the liver (p trend <0.001). If the odds ratio of normal group is 1.00, then that of the mild group is 2.80 (95% C.I=1.17-6.71) and that of the severe group is 7.29 (95% C.I=2.76-19.30). The prevalence of metabolic alterations fitting the criteria of metabolic syndrome, according to the class of fat accumulation in the liver, was significantly increased, except for criteria of high blood pressure, a large waist circumference and low HDL (high density lipoprotein) cholesterol level (p trend <0.001). The level of serum beta-carotene was decreased according to the class of fat accumulation in the liver (p trend=0.036), but the levels of serum alpha-carotene, lycopene, bata-cryptoxanthin and lutein were not decreased. CONCLSIONS: This study shows that non alcoholic fatty liver was associated with metabolic syndrome and with the serum beta-carotene level.

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Fasting Serum Glucose and Subsequent Liver Cancer Risk in a Korean Prospective Cohort.: Jin Gwack, Seung Sik Hwang, Kwang Pil Ko, Jae Kwan Jun, Sue Kyung Park, Soung Hoon Chang, Hai Rim Shin, Keun Young Yoo; J Prev Med Public Health. 2007;40(1):23-28.; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3961/jpmph.2007.40.1.23

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Abstract PDF

OBJECTIVES
Chronic infections with hepatitis B or C and alcoholic cirrhosis are three well-known major risk factors for liver cancer. Diabetes has also been suggested as a potential risk factor. However, the findings of previous studies have been controversial in terms of the causal association. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the association between serum glucose levels and liver cancer development in a Korean cohort. METHODS: Thirty-six liver cancer cases were identified in the Korean Multi-Center Cancer Cohort (KMCC). Baseline information on lifestyle characteristics was obtained via questionnaire. Serum glucose levels were measured at the study's enrollment. Relative risks (RRs) were estimated using a Cox proportional hazard regression model. The adjusting variables included age, gender, smoking history, alcohol consumption, body mass index, and hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) seropositivity. RESULTS: The RRs of serum glucose for liver caner were 1.20 (95% CI=0.48-2.99) for the category of 100 to 125 mg/dL of serum glucose and 2.77 (95% CI=1.24-6.18) for the >126 mg/dL serum glucose category (both compared to the <100 mg/dL category). In a subgroup analysis, the RR of serum glucose among those who were both HBsAg seronegative and non-drinkers was 4.46 (95% CI=1.09-18.28) for those with glucose levels >100 mg/dL. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study suggest that a high level of serum glucose can increase liver cancer risk independently of hepatitis infection and drinking history in Koreans. This study implies that glucose intolerance may be an independent risk factor for liver cancer.

Summary

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Original Articles

The Protective Effects of Garlic against Carbon tetrachloride-induced Hepatotoxicity.: Byung Sun Choi, Jong Moon Lee, Jung Duck Park, Yeon Pyo Hong; Korean J Prev Med. 2002;35(3):221-228.

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Abstract PDF: OBJECTIVES
The purpose of this study was to find the protective effects of garlic on the halogenated hydrocarbon induced hepatotoxicities, and the possible protection mechanisms involved. METHODS: Male Sprague-Dawley rats received garlic (0.5 %) or regular diet, for 4 weeks. This was followed by a single dose of corn oil (the controls), carbon tetrachloride (400mg/kg body weight) and trichloroethylene (2,000mg/kg body weight) being administered to each diet group. Blood samples were collected 24 hours following the administration, and the serum aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) activities measured. The liver samples were studied for their cytochrome P450 and CYP2E1 contents, lipid peroxidation and histopathology. RESULTS: The results for the group receiving the 0.5 % garlic diet showed a slight decrease of CYP2E1 expression compared with the regular diet group. Carbon tetrachloride was significantly decreased the CYP2E1 contents in both the regular and garlic diet groups, but the trichloroethylene remained unchanged. Garlic did not decrease the lipid peroxidation of the liver in the control group, but attenuated the increase of lipid peroxidation caused by carbon tetrachloride. Garlic attenuated the increase of both the serum AST and ALT activities caused by carbon tetrachloride. The histopathological observations also showed that garlic attenuated centrilobular necrosis and vacuolar degenerative changes significantly in the carbon tetrachloride treated group. Conclusions : The results indicate that garlic attenuates the carbon tetrachloride-induced hepatotoxicity, through the prevention of the metabolic activation and lipid peroxidation.; Summary

A Cohort Study on Risk Factors for Chronic Liver Disease: Analytic Strategies Excluding Potentially Incident Subjects.: Moo Song Lee, Dae Sung Kim, Dong Hyun Kim, Jong Myun Bae, Myung Hee Shin, Yoon Ok Ahn; Korean J Prev Med. 1999;32(4):452-458.

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Abstract PDF: OBJECTIVES
The authors conducted the study to evaluate bias when potentially diseased subjects were included in cohort members while analyzing risk factors of chronic liver diseases. METHODS: Total of 14,529 subjects were followed up for the incidence of liver diseases from January 1993 to June 1997. We have used databases of insurance company with medical records, cancer registry, and death certificate data to identify 102 incident cases. The cohort members were classified into potentially diseased group(n=2,217) when they were HBsAg positive, serum GPT levels higher than 40 units, or had or has liver diseases in baseline surveys. Cox' model were used for potentially diseased group, other members, and total subjects, respectively. RESULTS: The risk factors profiles were similar for total and potentially diseased subjects: HBsAg positivity, history of acute liver disease, and recent quittance of smoking or drinking increased the risk, while intake of pork and coffee decreased it. For the potentially diseased, obesity showed marginally significant protective effect. Analysis of subjects excluding the potentially diseased showed distinct profiles: obesity increased the risk, while quitting smoking or drinking had no association. For these intake of raw liver or processed fish or soybean paste stew increased risk; HBsAg positivity, higher levels of liver enzymes and history of acute liver diseases increased the risk. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggested the potential bias in risk ratio estimates when potentially diseased subjects were included in cohort study on chronic liver diseases, especially for lifestyles possibly modified after disease onset. The analytic strategy excluding potentially diseased subjects was considered appropriate for identifying risk factors for chronic liver diseases.; Summary

Decision-making process and satisfaction of pregnant women for delivery method.: Hae Ri Jun, Jung Han Park, Soon Woo Park, Chang Kyu Huh, Soon Gu Hwang; Korean J Prev Med. 1998;31(4):751-769.

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Abstract PDF: This study was conducted to assess the attitude of pregnant women toward delivery method, understanding of the reason for determining her own delivery method, participation in decision-making process and satisfaction with delivery method after labor. Study subjects were 693 pregnant women who had visited obstetric clinic for prenatal care in the last month of pregnancy in one general hospital and one obstetrics-gynecology specialty hospital in Taegu city from February 1 to March 31 in 1998. A questionnaire was administered before and after labor and a telephone interview was done one month after labor. Proportion of women who had health education and/or counselling about delivery method during prenatal care was 24.0% and this proportion was higher for women who had previous c-section(35.5%) than others. Women thought vaginal delivery is better than c-section for both maternal and baby's health regardless of previous delivery method. About 90% of primipara and multiparous women who had previous vaginal delivery wanted vaginal delivery for the index birth, while 85.6% of multiparous women who had previous c-section wanted repeat c-section. Reasons for choosing c-section in pregnant women who preferred vaginal delivery before labor were recommendation of doctors(81.9%), recommendation of husband(0.8%), agreement between doctor and pregnant woman(4.7%), and mother's demand(12.6%). Reasons for choosing vaginal delivery were mother's demand(30.6%) and no indication for c-section(67.2%). Reasons for choosing c-section in pregnant women who preferred c-section before labor were recommendation of doctors(76.2%), mother's demand(20.0%), recommendation of husband(1.3%), and agreement between doctor and pregnant woman(2.5%). Of the pregnant women who had c-section, by doctor's recommendation, the proportion of women who had heard detailed explanation about reason for c-section by doctor was 55.1%. Mother's statement about the reason for c-section was consistent with the medical record in 75.9%. However, over 5% points disparities were shown between mother's statement and medical record in cases of the repeat c-section and mother's demand. In primipara and multiparous women who had previous vaginal delivery, the delivery method for index birth had statistically significant association with the preference of delivery method before labor(p<0.05). All of the women who had previous c-section had delivered the index baby by c-section. Among mothers who had delivered the index baby vaginally, 84.9% of them were satisfied with their delivery method immediately after labor and 85.1% at 1 month after labor. However, mothers who had c-section stated that they are satisfied with c-section in 44.6% immediately after labor and 42.0% at 1 month after labor. Preferred delivery method for the next birth had statistically significant association with delivery method for the index birth both immediately after labor and in 1 month after labor. The proportion of mothers who prefer vaginal delivery for the next birth increased with the degree of satisfaction with the vaginal delivery for the index birth but the proportion of mothers who prefer c-section for the next birth was high and they did not change significantly with the degree of satisfaction with the c-section for the index birth. These results suggest that the current high technology-based, physician-centered prenatal and partritional cares need to be reoriented to the basic preventive and promotive technology-based, and mother-fetus-centered care. It is also suggested that active involvement of pregnant woman in decision-making process for the delivery method will increase the rate of vaginal birth after c-section and decrease c-section rate and improve the degree of maternal satisfaction after delivery.; Summary

A Study on the Pervalence and Risk Factors of Liver Dysfunction among the Workers in Chemical Factors.: Hae Kwan Cheong, Joung Soom Kim; Korean J Prev Med. 1997;30(1):103-128.

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Abstract PDF: The object of this study is to evaluate the possibility of chemical-induced liver disorder among workers exposed to various chemicals and to classify the the liver function abnormalities by causes and to analyse the risk factors for each liver disorders. A cross-sectional study including questionnaire survey, physical examination, laboratory tests and ultrasonography of liver was conducted on 1,126 workers, 459 workers in a coal chemical plant(company A) and 667 workers in an insulation material manufacturing factory(company B). An industrial hygienist reviewed the chemicals used in both companies and evaluated the work environments to classify the workers by chemical exposure semiquantitatively. The results are as follows; 1. Of 459 workers in company A, 83 workers(18.1 %) are classified as nonexposed, 163(35.5%) as short-term exposure group, 155(33.8 %) as intermediately exposed group and 58(12.6 %) as long-term exposed group based on the mean daily exposure to hepatotoxic chemicals evaluated by an industrial hygienist. Of 667 workers in company B, 484(72.6 %) workers were classified as nonexposed and 183(35.5 %) as exposed. 2. Workers with SGOT level higher than 40 IU/l were 46(10.0 %) in company A and 77(11.5 %) in company B, and those with SGPT level higher than 35 IU/l were 118(25.7 %) in company A and 198(29.7 %) in company B. The differences were not significant between companies and between exposure groups(p>0.05). Workers with ?-GT level higher than 62 IU/l were 29(6.3 %) in company A and 77(11.5 %) in company B(p<0.01). The difference between exposure groups was not significant(p>0.05) within companies. Workers with liver function abnormalities(defined as SGOT higher than 40 IU/l or SGPT higher than 35 IU/l, Ministry of Labor, 1989) were 338(30.0 %) among 1,126 workers. Of 338 workers with liver function abnormalities 139(12.3 %) had fatty liver by ultrasonography, 79(7.0 %) had alcoholic liver(defined as workers with liver function abnormalities with weekly alcohol consumption greater than 280 g for more than 5 years), 54(4.8 %) had hepatitis B, 12(1.1 %) had hepatitis C and the other 114(33.7 %) was not otherwise classified. Prevalences of alcoholic liver and fatty liver were significantly lower in company A(prevalence ratio 0.24 for alcoholic liver, p<0.001; prevalence ratio 0.76 for fatty liver, p<0.05) but prevalences of liver disorders between exposure groups within companies were not significant(p>0.05). 3. Summary prevalence ratios(SPR) of liver function abnormalities, fatty liver and other liver disorders, adjusted by age and company were not significantly higher in exposed group in any chemicals(p>0.05) but in some chemicals, SPRs were significantly lower. 4. On simple analysis of risk factors for liver function abnormalities, prevalence odds ratio(POR) of those with age between 30 and 39 was 1.54(p<0.01) and those with age over 40 was 1.51(p<0.01). POR of those with histories of liver disorders and general anesthesia was 1.77(p<0.001) and 4.02 for those with overweight and 6.23 for those with obesity, defined by body mass index(p<0.001). 5. On logistic regression analysis, risk factors of liver function abnormality were fatty liver(POR 2.92 for grade 1, 12.15 for grade 2), presence of hepatitis B surface antigen(POR 3.62) and obesity(POR 5.38 for overweight and 16.52 for obesity). Presence of hepatitis B surface antigen(POR 0.18) was the only preventive factor of fatty liver. Company(POR 0.30) and obesity(POR 2.49 for overweight, 4.52 for obesity) were related to the alcoholic liver. Obesity(POR 2.94 for overweight) was the only significant risk factor of hepatitis B and there was no significant risk factor for liver function abnormality not otherwise classified. It is concluded that the evidence of liver disorder related with chemical exposure is not evident in these factories. It is also postulated that fatty liver and alcoholic liver is most common causes of liver function abnormalities among workers and effort for weight control and improvement of life style should be done.; Summary

Association of Liver Dysfunction with Self-Medication History in Korean Healthy Male Adults.: Jong Myon Bae, Byung Joo Park, Moo Song Lee, Dong Hyun Kim, Myung Hee Shin, Yoon Ok Ahn; Korean J Prev Med. 1996;29(4):801-814.

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Abstract PDF: BACKGROUND
Korean people could abuse healthy foods as well as medications, which might cause serious side effects. The aim of this study was elucidating liver dysfunction due to the self-medications of hepatotonics, healthy foods and herb medications by nested case-control study. METHODS: Study subjects were drawn from male members of seoul Cohort Study who were recruited by self-administered structured questionnaire survey through mailing to the healthy men between the age of 40 and 59 years through the program of biennial health check-up offered by Korea Medical Insurance Corporation(KMIC). The liver dysfunction was defined as the level of serum AST and ALT above 40 IU/L and increased in more than one hundred per-cent during the 2 year follow-up period. To estimate the odds ratio between self-medication and liver dysfunction after controlling for potential confounders, logistic regression was performed. RESULTS: During the follow-up period, 30 members were identified to fit into case criteria and 2,625 members were selected as control. In logistic regression analyses, history of healthy foods intake, age under 45 years, obesity, and habit of regular exercise were significantly associated with liver dysfunction. The following factors exhibited no statistical significance: intake of hepatotonics, of herb medicine; history of disease in family, of operation, and of radiologic examination; smoking habits and drinking amounts. CONCLUSION: The significant association between the intake of healthy foods and the liver dysfunction illustrates that chronically optional overuse of healthy foods might bring to hazards to health. As the increasing trend of the size of purchasing healthy foods in Korea, pharmacoepidemiologic studies evaluating the safety and efficacy of the widely used healthy foods should be performed in the near future.; Summary

A Survey on Status of Pregnancy and Delivery at a Rural Village, Napal(Dolakha Bazar Area).: Young Woo Ahn, Yune Sik Kang, Sin Kam, Jong Young Lee; Korean J Prev Med. 1996;29(4):721-732.

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Abstract PDF: This study was conducted to investigate the status of pregnancy and delivery and relationship among knowledge, attitude and practice about pregnancy and delivery in poor country, Nepal. A questionnaire survey by interviewer was conducted to examine the general characteristics, knowledge about pregnancy and delivery, attitude about pregnancy and delivery, the rate of prenatal care and delivery condition of women who had an experience of delivery during last year(1994. 4. 13~1995. 4. 12) at a rural area, nepal(Dolakha Bazar Area). The major findings are as follows; Among respondents, 87.5 percentage never had health education and the degree of knowledge about pregnancy and delivery was low. Among respondents, 56.6 percentage had the attitude that they didn't want antenatal care, 42.8% of respondents answered that they wouldn't visit hospital or health center when vaginal bleeding occurred and 82.9% thought that the delivery itself was dirty. The proportion of women who experienced antenatal care was 28.3%, the proportion of health facilities delivery was 5.3%, which was very low and 82.6% of home delivery case didn't sanitate the tool to cut the umbilical cord. The women who had positive attitude about antenatal care and health facility utilization experienced more antenatal care and health facilities delivery. On consideration of above findings, health education for pregnancy and delivery is required to improve mother-child health status in poor country. To make efficient health education, the target population group, such as the uneducated, inhabitants far from health center or medical facility, must be chosen. To help the poor countries in medical field, the study on health status and its related factors on these countries like this article would be required.; Summary

Predictors of breast-feeding discontinuation in some followed-up hospital-delivered mothers.: Choong Won Lee, Moo Sik Lee, Jong Won Park, Mi Young Lee, Mi Joung Kang, Dong Hoon Shin, Se Youp Lee; Korean J Prev Med. 1995;28(4):845-862.

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Abstract PDF: We followed prospectively some hospital-delivered mothers to identify characteristics of those not initiated breast-feeding and predictors of breast-feeding discontinuation in monthly telephone interviews. Recruits were composed of 482 mothers who delivered their babies at one university hospital and one OB/GYN clinic in september to November 1991. Breast-feeding discontinuation was defined as switch to 100% formula lasting more than one week regardless of solid foods. Average age of the study subjects was 27.3 years of age(standard deviation 3.2). Multiple logistic regression analysis indicated native place, occupation, method of delivery and method of feeding considered to be better for maternal health were statistically significant(p<0.1) between initiators and non-initiators of breast feeding. In starting cohort(N=242) of those initiated breast-feeding, that median of breast-feeding discontinuation were 5 months and 25th and 75th percentiles were 3 and 9 months respectively. I Cox's proportional hazard model, mothers with 10~13 years of education were 2.63 times (95% confidence interval, CI 1.50~4.60 ) more likely to discontinue than those with less than 9 years of education and those with more than 13 years of education were 3.55 time (95% CI 1.99~6.33). Compared with house wife, mothers with part-time jobs were 1.99 times (95% CI 0.86~4.57) more likely to discontinue and those with employed full-time were 1.55 times (95% CI 0.96~2.51). These results suggest that the predictors of initiation and discontinuation of breast-feeding may be different and different target populations should be selected to promote initiation and to prevent discontinuation of breast-feeding according to the period after birth.; Summary

An analysis of liver function test of preemployment screening for office workers.: Yeon Gyo Shin, Yong Jin Lee, Jae Eog Ahn, Kuck Hyeun Woo, Joo Ja Kim, Byung Kook Lee; Korean J Prev Med. 1995;28(3):706-714.

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Abstract PDF: This is to analyze and compare the distribution of the liver function test and its abnormal rates of the preemployment screening for office workers in asymptomatic young age groups between female and male. Liver function test(SGPT and SGOT) of 8,184 young adults(2,633 in female and 5,551 in male) were examined during the period from Jan.1,1994 to Dec. 31, 1994. The results were as follows; 1. Mean level of SGPT was 9.l+/-7.6(IU/L) in female, 21.0+/-27.9(IU/L) in male, and that of SGOT was 15.1+/-6.0(IU/L) in female, 20.5+/-26.5(IU/L) in male. There were significant differences(p<0.01) between female and male in both SPT and SGOT. And also there was significant increasing trend(p<0.05) by age groups in male for SGPT, decreasing trend(p<0.01) in female for SGOT. 2. In the abnormal rates of liver function test by the level of cut-off value, there were significant differences up to twice between the lowest and the highest cut-off value in both female(0.4% vs 0.7%) and male(6.5% vs 12.4%) 3. Abnormal rate of SGPT was 0.4% in female and 6.3% in male, and that of SGOT was 0.2% in female and 1.2% in male with significant differences between female and male in both tests.; Summary

An Empirical Analysis of Price Elasticity of the Demand for Medical Care Services in Korean National Health Insurance Program.: Chunbae Kim, Dosung Lee, Hanjoong Kim, Myongsei Sohn; Korean J Prev Med. 1995;28(2):450-461.

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Abstract PDF: This paper tested by using Micro TSP, an empirical econometric analysis to approve officially a hypothesis of price elasticity of the demand for medical care services in Korean national medical insurance and the economic effect of health care delivery system with time-series datas of Medical Insurance statistical yearbook(1981-1993). The results suggest that the korean medical insurance system shows moral hazard due to the change of coinsurance and the economic effect according to intervention of the health care delivery system, but it is different by insurers regardless of the same structure of the medical insurance scheme.; Summary

A Baseline Study on the Choice of Optimal Screening Test Items among Workers with Abnormal Liver Function Tests on Workers' Periodic Health Examination.: Hae Kwan Cheong, Hyun Sul Lim, Gyu Hoi Kim; Korean J Prev Med. 1994;27(4):747-762.

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Abstract PDF: Workers', periodic health examination is the main tools used to manage the health problems of most workers in Korea. The most common health problem found in workers' periodic health examination is liver disorder. Liver disorder is also one of the most common health problems in general population and one of the leading causes of mortality in adult population. Regulation proposed by government(NO. 207, Ministry of Labor, 1992) defines the criteria for selection of workers with the liver dysfunction for further evaluative examination and the examination items used for diagnosis of the workers with liver dysfunction. This study was designed to evaluate the proficiency of each examination items presently defined in Regulation and propose the optimal examination items for detection of the liver disorders found by workers' periodic health examination. Study subjects are 186 workers with abnormal liver function tests in screening examination of workers' periodic health ex amination. Questionnaire survey including past history of liver disorder, drinking history, height and weight was done. Physical examination by physician, routine test items defined by Regulation (SGOT, SGPT, gamma- GTP, protein, albumin, total and direct bilirubin, alkaline phoshatase, alpha-feto protein, HBsAg and anti-HBs), anti-HCV antibody test and liver ultrasonography were done. Results are as follows; 1. Result of evaluative examination utilizing only the items defined in Regulation was; There were 75 workers with suspected liver disorder(40.3%), 63 with no liver dysfunction(33.90%), 13 with suspected hepatitis B(7.0%), 10 workers with hepatitis B(5.4%) 10 workers with hepatitis B carrier state(5.4%), 10 with alcoholic liver disorders(5.4%), 5 with fatty liver(2.7%). When alternative diagnostic criteria applying additional examination items (drinking history, body mass index, anti-HCV antibody and ultrasonography) diagnosability of liver disorder was increased. When all four items were included, final results were; 23 workers (l7.8%) with hepatitis B(10 carriers, 13 suspects and 10 hepatitis B), 10(5.4%) with hepatitis C(4 carriers, 5 suspects and 1 hepatitis C), 13(7.0%) with alcoholic liver disorder, 45 (24.2%) with fatty liver (40 suspects, 5 fatty liver), 41 0%) with suspected liver disorders and 44(23.7%) with normal liver. 2. Of examination items defined by Regulation, only SGOT, SGPT, gamma-GTP and HBsAg were significantly different in abnormal rate and mean value, and all other laboratory findings did not showed significant difference between two groups. Drinking history, body mass index and anti-HCV antibody test which are the items that authors included in this study, also showed significant difference between two groups. Utilization of body mass index(BMI) for abnormal liver function group in diagnosis of fatty liver had high specificity(97.6%) but sensitivity (22.3%) was low. Therefore we suggest that SGOT, SGPT, gamma-GTP, HBsAg, alcohol drinking history, BMI and anti-Hcv Ab were useful for diagnosis of liver disorders among worker's periodic health examination.; Summary

A Case-Control Study of Primary Liver Cancer and Liver Disease History.: Dong Hyun Kim, Byung Joo Park, Keun Young Yoo, Yoon Ok Ahn, Hyo Suk Lee, Chung Yong Kim, Sang Il Lee, Moo Song Lee, Hyung Sik Ahn, Heon Kim, Tae Soo Park; Korean J Prev Med. 1994;27(2):217-225.

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Abstract PDF: The relationship between past liver disease history and the risk of primary liver cancer was analyzed in a hospital-based case-control study conducted in Seoul on 165 patients with histologically or serologically confirmed hepatocellular carcinoma and individually age-and sex-matched 165 controls in hospital for ophthalmologic, ontologic, or nasopharyngeal problems. Significant association were observed for liver diseases occurring 5 or more years before liver cancer diagnosis[OR, 4.9;97% confidence interval(CI), 1.6~14.0) and family history of liver disease(OR, 9.0;95% CI, 2.1~38.8). These associations were mot appreciably modified by allowance for major identified potential confounding factors, From these results, it is possible to speculate that liver cell injuries caused by Considering the significant effect of family history of liver diseases on PLCA risk after adjusting past liver disease history, there might be genetic susceptibility in the carcinogenic mechanism of liver cancer. Further investigations are needed to clarify the effect of family history of liver disease on PLCA risk.; Summary

The Korean Health Care Delivery System Early in the 21st Century.: Dal Sun Han; Korean J Prev Med. 1994;27(2):186-193.

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Abstract PDF: This paper is an attempt to identify major challenges to be faced by the Korean health care delivery system for about 30 year in the future and to deliberate over possible policy responses to them. It is not intended to make a precise prediction of the future profile of the system, but the focus is given to understanding what we have to do from now on in order to develop health care in Korea toward a desirable direction. Although the discussion has been made in a rather fragmented manner, it would hopefully provide stepping stones for a systematic study of the Korean health care system from a long range perspective.; Summary

A Cross-sectional Study on the Risk Factors Related to Fatty Liver.: S H Ohm, B C Yoo, S J Kim, C U Lee, K T Pai, S C Kim, H R Shin; Korean J Prev Med. 1993;26(2):179-191.

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Abstract PDF: Generally fatty liver is attributed either to chronic alcoholism, diabetes mellitus, or obesity. Based upon this commonly held clinical brief, this study was conducted to investigate the contributing factors of fatty liver and odds ratio (OR) of known contributing factors. A sample of 310 male participants, who visited at Seoul Paik Automated Multiphasic Health Testing System from November 1991 to December 1991, was separated into 112 cases and 198 controls by ultrasonographic finding. There were statistically significant difference between fatty liver and normal in triglyceride(TG), body mass index(BMI), alanine aminotransferase(ALT), high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), fasting blood sugar (FBS), alcohol consumption, low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), total cholesterol, gamma-glutamyl transferase (gamma-GT), duration of alcohol intake and alkaline phospahtase (Alk.P)(P<0.01, P<0.05). The statistically significant elevated odds ratio were noted for TG (4.48, confidence interval (CI) 2.66-7.55, P=0.000), alcohol consumption(3.24, CI 1.56-6.23, P=0.002), BMI(3.05, CI 1.87-4.97, P=0.000), and FBS(2.59, CI 1.53-4.40, P=0.000). In summary, it is suggested that the fatty liver could be preventive by avoiding such deleterious factors as high fat diet, alcohol and obesity.; Summary

A study of succiny trialanine p-nitroanilide hydrolytic activity in workers exposed to organic solvents.: Hae Ju Oh, Jae Hoon Roh; Korean J Prev Med. 1993;26(1):74-85.

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Abstract PDF: To measure the serum succinyl trialanine p-nitroanilide hydrolytic activity as new index of liver function in workers exposed to organic solvents, this study conducted 114 workers in department of shoe-making of shoes factories. The results obtained from this study were as follows: 1. The mean values of serum GOT, GPT, gamma GT in whole workers were 22+/-12.32, 20+/-9.65, 28+/-21.35IU/l, respectively and the mean value of serum STN hydrolytic activity was 0.08 0.05. 2. The serum STN hydrolytic activity was significantly higher for male(p<0.05) and there was no difference among the groups of age. 3. There was no difference in the groups by working hours but significant difference in persons who worked over 3 years or were exposed to toluene over 100ppm(p<0.05). 4. The correlation of the exposed dose of toluene and serum GOT, GPT, gamma GT and serum STN hydrolytic activity were statistically significant(r=0.027-0.518). 5. The exposed dose of toluene was most explainable variable and statistically significant among the factors affecting serum STN hydrolytic activity(p<0.05).; Summary

A Study on the Status of Seeking Intervention among the Workers with Health Problems Identified by the Workers' Periodic Health Examination.: Hee Kwan Cheong, Joung Soon Kim, Ok Ryun Moon, Hyun Sul Lim; Korean J Prev Med. 1992;25(4):343-356.

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Abstract PDF: Authors studied the workers' knowledge about the health problems detected through the previous workers' periodic health examination, content of follow-up management and actions taken for their health problem detected on previous health examination. From June to September 1992, workers' periodic health examination was performed on workers employed in 10 companies located in 2 middle-sized Korean cities. A questionnaire survey was done for 150 workers who reported to have D2 result of either hypertension or liver disorder at the previous workers' periodic health examination done in 1991. The results are as follows; 1. Of 160 workers who had D2 result of either hypertension or liver disorder in previous examination one year before, only 85 workers(51.3%, 43 workers with hypertension, 38 workers with live disorder) responded that they have such disorders. The other 65 workers responded to questionnaire were all those with C results. Respondents' knowledge about their diagnoses was relatively precise (95.2% in hypertension group, 94.6% in liver disorder group) but knowledge about classification of diseases was poor. 2. The main efforts to solve the health problem was self management (26 spells, 55.3%), visiting clinic or hospital (6 spells, 12.8%), use of herb medicine (2 spells, 4.3%) and use of drug store (2 spells, 4.3%) in hypertension group. In liver disorder group, 30 spells (71.4%) relied on self management, 6 spells (14.3%) on hospital or clinic and 9 spells (21.4%) had no effort to improve the health problem. Content of self management was low salt diet, quit smoking, regular exercise and quit alcohol drinking in order. Avoidance of salt in diet was high in hypertension group and quitting alcohol drinking was high in liver disorder group. In those with self management, 80.7% of hypertension group and 83.3% of liver disorder group continued previous effort. Those, however, who utilized clinic or hospital, only 16.7% and 50.0% were still visiting hospital or clinic. 3. Fifty seven percent of hypertension group and 64.3% of liver disorder group was presently smoking, 8.5% and 11.9% reduced smoking and 21.3% and 14.3% stopped smoking. Forty nine percent of hypertension group and 28.6% of liver disorder group was presently drinking. Reduced alcohol intake was reported in 29.8% and 40.5%, 12.8% and 23.8% stopped alcohol drinking. Sixty six percent of hypertension group and 73.8% of liver disorder group did no regular exercise, but 12.8% and 11.9% of each group increased their physical exercise for last one year. Forty three percent of hypertension group and 38.1% of liver disorder group was overweight (defined by bodymass index greater or equal than 25). Reduced body weight was reported in 17.2% and 16.7% of each group. Reduced dietary salt intake was high in hypertension group (51.5%). The study results suggest that follow-up management after workers' periodic health examination is not satisfactory. In order to improve this situation, adequate information on the result of the workers' periodic health examination should be distributed to each worker group with health education and counselling.; Summary

A cross-sectional study on prevalence rate and contributing factors of fatty liver diagnosed by ultrasonography.: Jae Eog Ahn, Jung Oh Ham, Kyu Yoon Hwang, Joo Ja Kim, Byung Kook Lee, Tack Sung Nam, Joung Soon Kim, Hun Kim; Korean J Prev Med. 1991;24(2):195-210.

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Abstract PDF: Fatty liver is caused by derangement of fat metabolism and can be reversed by removal of contributing factors. The contributing factors of fatty liver is known to be overweight, chronic alcoholism, diabetes mellitus, malnutrition, and drug abuse such as tetracycline. This study was carried out on 1335 persons who visited 'Soon Chun Hyang Human Dock Center' from March to June 1990. In analysis of the data, prevalence of fatty liver diagnosed by ultrasonogram by age and sex, laboratory finding between fatty liver group and normal group, and odds ratio of known contributing factors, were compared. The results obtained are as following; 1) The prevalence rate of fatty liver diagnosed by ultrasonogram is 29.6% in male and 11.5% in female. 2) Age groups with high prevalences are 40~50's in male (32.0%) and 50's in female (24.5%). 3) The fatty liver shows significant association with style (p<0.05), whereas not with hepatitis B-virus surface antigen (p>0.05). 4) All laboratory values except alkaline phosphatase and bilirubin are elevated significantly in accordance with the degree of fatty liver (p<0.01). 5) Fatty liver diagnosed by ultrasonogram showed so strong associations with body index, triglycerides and gamma-glutamyl transferase for males, and body index and fasting blood sugar for females that these factors may be used as supplementary data in establishing diagnosis of fatty liver. 6) Odds ratio of contributing factors are as follows; If the odds ratio of below 29 year of age is 1.0 then that of 30~39 is 1.74 (p=0.33), 40~49 is 2.47 (p=0.10), 50~59 is 2.86 (p=0.0570), over 60 is 1.81 (p=0.34). If the odds ratio of female is 1.0 then that of male is 5.67 (p<0.01). If the odds ratio of body index below zero is 1.0 then that of 0~9 is 5.08 (p<0.01), 10~19 is 12.37 (p<0.01), 20~29 is 29.19 (p<0.01), 30 above is 154.02 (p<0.01). If the odds ratio of below 99 mg/dl FBS is 1.0 then that of 100~120 is 106 (p=0.76), over 120 is 1.91 (p=0.02). If the odds ratio of below 29 micron/1 gamma-GT is 1.0 then that of 30~s59 is 2.11 (p<0.01), 60~90 is 1.87 (p<0.05), 90 above is 1.69 (p=0.15). If the odds ratio of below 149 mg/dl TG is 1.0 then 150~199 is 1.49 (p=0.05), 200~250 is 1.09 (p=0.77), 250 above is 2.53 (p<0.01). In summary, early diagnosis of fatty liver could be made by ultrasonogram supplemented with body index and serum triglyceride. The fatty liver could be preventive by avoiding contributing factors such as obesity, alcohol intake, high blood sugar appropriately.; Summary

Factors Affecting Selection of Delivery Facilities by Pregnant Women.: Choong Wan Lee, Seung Hum Yu, Hee Choul Oh; Korean J Prev Med. 1990;23(4):436-450.

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Abstract PDF: This study was designed to investigate the major factors affecting selection of delivery facilities by pregnant women. Five hundred women hospitalized at 23 Seoul-area delivery facilities, such as university hospitals, general hospitals, hospitals, and clinics were selected and given questionnaires from April 24 to May 7, 1990. A total of 350 questionnaires were collected and analysed for the study. The results are as follows; 1. In general, variables which significantly affected the choice of delivery facilities included the age of women, their educational level, the educational level of their husbands, monthly average incomes and residential areas. 2. In analyzing the obstetrical characteristics of the women, those variables significantly affecting the choice of delivery facilities were the gestational period, the facilities for prenatal care, the frequency of prenatal care, the type of delivery, the frequency of miscarriage, previous delivery experiences and the awareness on prenatal care. 3. In comparing the motivation factors for selecting the delivery facilities, all the factors except convenience and need for hospitalization differed significantly among delivery facilities. 4. The factor analysis was assessed for twenty possible factors motivating the choice of delivery facilities. Six factors including personal service, scale of the facility, reputation, urgency, convenience, and experience were noted explaining by 57.7%. 5. In the discriminant analysis used to clarify the major factors affecting the selection of delivery facilities, the 16 significant variables were regarded as independent variables, and the type of delivery facilities was considered a dependent variable. The stepwise method was applied to the analysis. Detected discriminant variables were the facilities for prenatal care, scale factor, personal service factor, urgency factor, convenience factor, reputation factor, experience factor, gestational period, types of delivery, frequency of miscarriage, age and income. These 12 discriminant variables were tested, with reference to discriminant prediction, on their importance in the choice of the delivery facility, by the discriminant functional formula. The test showed a hit-rate of 67.7%. The results suggest that general characteristics, obstetrical characteristics, and motivations for selecting the delivery facilities differ significantly according to the types of the delivery facilities. This study implies that all types of delivery facilities should attempt to acommodate characteristics and motivations of pregnant women. The facilities should be prepared to increase their patients satisfaction with required medical conditions by improving service and responding to the pregnant women's preferences.; Summary

Comparative Analysis of Delivery Management in Various Medical Facilities.: Jung Han Park, Young Sook You, Jang Rak Kim; Korean J Prev Med. 1989;22(4):555-577.

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Abstract PDF: This study was conducted to compare the delivery management including laboratory tests, medication and surgical procedures for the delivery in various medical facilities. Two university hospitals, two general hospitals, three hospitals, two private obstetric clinics, and two midwifery clinics in a large city were selected as they permitted the investigators to abstract the required data from the medical and accounting records. The total number of deliveries occurred at these 11 facilities between 15 January and 15 February, 1989 was 789 among which 606(76.8%) were vaginal deliveries and 183(23.3%) were C-sections. For the normal vaginal deliveries, CBC, Hb/Hct level, blood typing, VDRL, hepatitis B antigen and antibody, and urinalysis were routinely done except the private clinics and midwifery clinics which did not test for hepatitis B and Hb/Hct level at all. In one university hospital ultrasonography was performed in 71.4% of the mothers and in one general hospital liver function test was done in 76.7% of the mothers. For the C-section, chest X-ray, bleeding / clotting time and liver function test were routinely done in addition to the routine tests for the normal vaginal deliveries. Episiotomy was performed in 97.2% of the vaginal deliveries. The type and duration of fluid infused and antibiotics administered showed a wide variation among the medical facilities. In one university hospital antibiotics was not administered after C-section at all while in the general hospitals and hospitals one or two antibiotics were administered for one week on the average. In one private clinic one pint of whole blood was transfused routinely. A wide variation was observed among the medical facilities in the use of vitamin, hemostatics, oxytocics, antipyreptics, analgesics, anti-inflammatory agents, sedatives, digestives, stool softeners, antihistamines, and diuretics. Mean hospital day for the norma vaginal deliveries of primipara was 2.6 days with little variation except one hospital with 3.5 days. Mean hospital day for the C-section of primipara was 7.5 days and that of multipara was 7.6 days and it ranged between 6.5 days and 9.4 days. Average hospital fee for a normal vaginal delivery without the medical insurance coverage was 182,100 Won for the primipara and 167,300 Won for the multipara. In case of the primipara covered by the medical insurance a mother paid 82,400 Won and a multiparous mother paid 75,600 Won. Average hospital fee for a C-section without the medical insurance was 946,500 Won for the primipara and 753,800 Won for the multipara. In case of the primipara covered by the medical insurance a mother paid 256,200 Won and a multiparous mother paid 253,700 Won. Average hospital fee for a normal vaginal delivery in the university hospitals showed a remarkable difference, 268,000 Won vs 350,000 Won, as well as for the C-section. A wide variation in the laboratory tests performed for a normal vaginal delivery and a C-section as well as in the medication and hospital days brought about a big difference in the hospital fee and some hospitals were practicing the case payment system. Thus, standardization of the medical care to a certain level is warranted for the provision of adequate medical care for delivery.; Summary

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